<p>Fort Ancient  is a Native American earthworks complex located in Washington Township, Warren County, Ohio, along the eastern shore of the Little Miami River about seven miles  southeast of Lebanon on State Route 350. The site is the largest prehistoric hilltop enclosure in the United States with three and one-half miles  of walls in a 100 acre complex. Built by the Hopewell culture, who lived in the area from the 200 BC to AD 400, the site is situated on a wooded bluff 270 ft above the Little Miami. It is the namesake of a culture known as Fort Ancient who lived near the complex long after it was constructed.</p><br>
<p>Maintained as a state historical park, the site was designated a National Historic Landmark for its significance. The State of Ohio purchased the land and made it Ohio&#39;s first state park in 1891. In addition, this is part of the Hopewell Ceremonial Earthworks, one of 14 sites nominated in January 2008 by the U.S. Department of the Interior for potential submission by the United States to the UNESCO World Heritage List. It was officially designated a World Heritage Site in September 2023 together with the earthworks at Hopewell Culture National Historical Park and the Newark Earthworks.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The Fort Ancient earthworks were built in at least three stages over an estimated 400-year period. The shoulder blades of deer, split elk antlers, clam shell hoes, and digging sticks were used to loosen the dirt, and baskets holding 35 to 40 pounds were used to carry and distribute the soils in building the earthworks. Archaeologists estimate the total volume of earth in the walls at 553,000 cubic yards.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeological Research</h2><br>
<p>In 1809 the Philadelphia Port Folio published the first map and description of Fort Ancient. The accounts of the site by Atwater and Warden several years later are nearly identical to the 1809 report and map. The site was visited and surveyed in by John Locke in 1843. In Edwin Hamilton Davis and Ephraim George Squier&#39;s Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, they described Fort Ancient as "one of the most extensive, if not the most extensive, work...in the entire West", regarding its size.</p><br>
<p>Warren K. Moorehead conducted some of the initial excavations at Fort Ancient in 1887 and published his research in 1891 in the book Fort Ancient: Great Prehistoric Warren County Ohio. Additional research was conducted by William C. Mills in 1908 and Richard Morgan and Holmes Ellis in 1939–1940.</p><br>
<p>More contemporary research includes the following:</p><br>
<p>* From 1982 until her untimely death in 1991, Patricia Essenpreis conducted a series of excavations that included the re-excavation and examination of embankment wall cuts conducted by Richard Morgan. These excavations demonstrated that the embankment walls were built in multiple stages and that post structures were documented at the base of the walls. She also examined the Gateway 13 exterior spur where she found evidence of bladelet manufacturing. Her final project involved the excavation of a pavement and structure on the exterior of the earthworks near the Twin Mound complex. Here, she documented a three-level limestone pavement with household or domestic activity at the lowest level.</p><br>
<p>* From 1987 through 2006, Robert Connolly collaborated with and then continued the research projects initiated by Patricia Essenpreis. His initial work involved taking Essenpreis&#39;s "canons of construction" to develop an "architectural grammar" of earthwork elements, demonstrating their intentional and precise placement throughout the Fort Ancient complex. In 1995 and 1996 Connolly directed the investigation of embankment walls and a large interior space of the North Fort of the earthwork in advance of a new museum construction. The embankment wall excavation confirmed Essenpreis&#39; conclusion of multiple construction levels, but added a level of complexity in alternate basket loads of different soils in the construction, many features below the embankment wall, and a three-level limestone pavement on the exterior of the wall that contained a cache of burnt animal bones. Excavation in the North Fort interior space revealed the presence of 10 habitation structures.</p><br>
<p>* Beginning in 2006, Robert Riordan conducted excavations in the North Fort of the earthwork complex that revealed a complex series of posts and activity areas, some with intense burning. Riordan named the Moorehead Circle after the archaeologist who conducted early excavations at the site.</p><br>
<h2>Purpose</h2><br>
<p>Some archaeologists originally thought the site was created to provide shelter against enemies. However, that interpretation is now discounted as the site presents anomalies inconsistent with defensive use such as:</p><br>
<p>* Ditches are located inside the walls, rather than outside as a means of defense.</p><br>
<p>* The 84 gateway openings in the walls could not have been defended in case of attack.</p><br>
<p>* Evidence has not been found for the number of occupants necessary for a significant defense force.</p><br>
<p>Based on the total corpus of archaeological research, the current functional interpretation is that the walls were designed for social, economic, political and ceremonial purposes. Research demonstrates the site architecture was aligned with significant astronomical events. In the Northeast corner of the complex, four circular stone-covered mounds are arranged in a square. The southwest mound of the four is interpreted to have functioned as a point that aligned with gateway openings in the embankment walls to mark significant solar and lunar events.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The site now includes a 9,000 ft&sup2; museum covering 1500 years of American Indian heritage in the Ohio Valley. Topics include North America&#39;s earliest people, the development of agriculture, and the impact of Europeans who migrated to the area and came into conflict with the Native Americans then living in region. The Museum also contains a classroom, a research area, and a gift shop. The site is open to the public Wednesday-Saturday from 10:00 AM to 5:00 PM and Sunday 12:00 - 5:00 PM ..</p><br>
<h2>The Historic Era Fort Ancient Village</h2><br>
<p>In the 19th century, Fort Ancient was a stop on the Little Miami Railroad. A historic tavern called the Cross Keys Tavern remains on the west bank of the Little Miami River and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The area is currently a public access to the Little Miami Bike Trail, which occupies the former railway land that follows the River. There is a public access and parking for the Little Miami River at the site.</p><br>
<p>Oregon Hill is a historic working-class neighborhood in Richmond, Virginia. Oregon Hill overlooks the James River and Belle Isle, and provides access to Hollywood Cemetery. Due to the neighborhood&#39;s proximity to the Monroe Park Campus of Virginia Commonwealth University, the neighborhood is sometimes referred to as a student quarter because of its high college student population.</p><br>
<p>William Byrd III established a rural estate on the property in 1758. Wealthy heiress Grace Arents helped build many institutions to serve the community.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1758, William Byrd III built his country house Belvidere on this hill, with views of the James River as well as Church Hill (Richmond, Virginia) and Shockoe Hill. Fire destroyed the house and gardens about a century later, by which time the neighborhood had transformed from an agricultural to industrial one. Construction of the James River and Kanawha Canal beginning in 1785 brought not only boatman, but merchants, millers and iron workers to the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Important Quakers who lived in the Oregon Hill neighborhood included Robert Pleasants, and later Samuel Pleasants Parsons, who became superintendent of the Virginia Penitentiary, which once stood on Belvidere Street. As General Superintendent of the canal company, Parsons oversaw its expansion to Lynchburg, Virginia. In 1817, the Harvie family, which owned most of the neighborhood, subdivided it into lots, which were sold to blacks as well as whites. The Baker House, built by a "free person of color" on Belvidere Street, was moved in the 1920s to 617 Cherry Street. The neighborhoods name refers to quips that employees moving there to be close to their workplace might as well be moving westward to Oregon. The Tredegar Iron Works and Albemarle Paper Company became major employers by the 1850s. In 1849, the Hollywood Cemetery was developed from what had been known as Harvies Woods at the edge of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Most early buildings in the current historic district date from industrial expansion during Reconstruction following the Civil War, when state office buildings also replaced some single-family housing. Richmond annexed the neighborhood in 1869. The oldest surviving church building is the Pine Street Baptist Church, built in 1886. The city acquired the land which became Riverside Park, delimiting the neighborhoods southern edge, in 1889. The park keepers house dates from 1900, but many of the walkways and other buildings were constructed by the Works Progress Administration in the 1930s. The park sustained substantial damage from tropical storm Gaston in 2004. In the early 1940s, the neighborhood saw a large fluxation of Jewish immigrants fleeing Eastern Europe. The population was extrapolated in the 1960s due to segregation laws.</p><br>
<p>St. Andrews Church started as a Sunday school mission of St. Pauls Episcopal Church in 1873. A brick structure replaced the original wood-frame building in 1901. In 1894, Richmond philanthropist Grace Arents (niece of Lewis Ginter) established a kindergarten, which later expanded into, and ultimately the St. Andrews Church Complex. Around the same time, Sadie Cabaniss, superintendent of the nursing school at Old Dominion Hospital (now VCU School of Nursing), founded the Nurses Settlement House, now known as the William Byrd Community House. All three continue to the current day, with separate but complementary missions among the neighborhoods (and metropolitan areas) working families.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Oregon Hill is currently bordered by Cary St. to the north, Belvidere St. to the east, The James River and Canal to the south, and by the Hollywood cemetery and Linden St. to the west. It is located only a few blocks south of Virginia Commonwealth University. This makes it a popular place for students to rent houses or apartments. It is also known as a white working-class enclave. Recently, there has been much development throughout Oregon Hill. This development has occurred in several forms. Infill projects have erected houses in lots that were previously vacant due to fires or other demolition. Many old buildings have either been torn down and replaced with townhouses, or renovated. A new townhouse complex called The Overlook was completed in the late 2010s and was constructed on the blocks overlooking the James River. Possibly one of the most important sites in this neighborhood is Mosss House. The only restaurant in Oregon Hill is L&#39;opossum, which Tom Hanks has visited. Up until the 1990s, original housing stock stood on and was inhabited in this area. It was demolished and the land stood vacant after 1997, during which time it was used as a riverside park overlooking the James. The complete demolition of all the houses on these 3 blocks was a source of bitter contention between the neighborhood and the Ethyl Corporation, which owned the land. Some original houses still look over the river to the west of this development. Due to the major development, and the accompanying rise in property taxes and general cost of living, many families who have lived in Oregon Hill for generations are selling their homes or finding their rents unaffordable.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Boris Kodjoe, actor, lived there while attending Virginia Commonwealth University</p><br>
<p>Members of the heavy metal band Lamb of God lived in the neighborhood while attending Virginia Commonwealth University, playing their earliest shows in basements throughout Oregon Hill.</p><br>
<p>Caressa Cameron, 2010 Miss America</p><br>
<p>Donnie Corker, cross-dresser, entertainer, entrepreneur and activist</p><br>
<p>Christopher Poole, founder of 4chan, lived in the neighborhood while attending Virginia Commonwealth University</p><br>
<p>Troy Daniels, shooting guard for the Charlotte Hornets, briefly lived in the neighborhood while playing for the VCU Rams men&#39;s basketball team in 2010</p><br>
<p>Jay Pharoah, Saturday Night Live cast member, while attending VCU</p><br>
<p>David Baldacci, best-selling novelist</p><br>
<p>Mary Jackson, leader of the 1863 Richmond Bread Riot</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Oregon Hill is the first book of Howard Owens Willie Black mystery series. As the New York Times Sunday Book Review said, "Owen has recruited his sick, sad and creatively crazy characters from a rough neighborhood cut off from the rest of the city when the expressway was built. If anyone is watching out for the forgotten citizens of Oregon Hill, its Willie, who grew up there and speaks the local language, a crisp and colorful urban idiom..."</p><br>
<p>Old Town San Diego State Historic Park is a state protected historical park in the Old Town neighborhood of San Diego, California. The park commemorates the early days of San Diego; it includes many historic buildings from the period 1820 to 1870. The park was established in 1968. In 2005 and 2006, California State Parks listed Old Town San Diego as the most visited state park in California.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, the site was registered as California Historical Landmark No. 830. Then on September 3, 1971, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Old Town San Diego Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first European settlement on the West Coast of the present-day United States was the San Diego Presidio, a military outpost of Spanish California, founded by Gaspar de Portolà in 1769. Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Father Junípero Serra the same year. The Presidio and Mission were originally built on a bluff above the San Diego River, Presidio Hill, which is now the site of the city-owned Presidio Park and which is immediately adjacent to Old Town State Historic Park.</p><br>
<p>After five years the Mission moved to a location several miles upriver at the present site of Mission San Diego de Alcalá. Presidio Hill remained the primary settlement for several decades because it was defensible against attack by European enemies or hostile Native Americans. As the need for defense decreased, settlers preferred to live at the base of the hill because of greater convenience. In the 1820s the town of San Diego grew up at the base of the bluff, at the site commemorated by Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. The Presidio was abandoned and fell into disrepair.</p><br>
<p>During the pueblo period following Mexican independence, the Old Town area was the commercial and governmental hub of the region, even though its population was never more than a few hundred. San Diego during this period is vividly described by Richard Henry Dana Jr. in his classic book Two Years Before the Mast. In 1834 the Mexican government granted San Diego the status of a pueblo or chartered town; however, its pueblo status was revoked in 1838 due to declining population. One problem limiting the town&#39;s growth was its location far from navigable water. All imports and exports had to be brought ashore in Point Loma and carried several miles over La Playa Trail to the town.</p><br>
<p>When California was admitted to the United States in 1850, San Diego (still largely limited to the Old Town area) was made the county seat of San Diego County, even though the town&#39;s population was only 650.</p><br>
<p>The Old Town area remained the heart of the city of San Diego until the 1860s, when a newcomer to San Diego named Alonzo Horton began to promote development at the site of present-day downtown San Diego. Residents and businesses quickly abandoned "Old Town" for Hortons "New Town" because of New Towns proximity to shipping. In 1871 government records were moved from Old Town to a new county courthouse in New Town, and Downtown permanently eclipsed Old Town as the focal point of San Diego.</p><br>
<p>Old Town San Diego State Historic Park preserves and recreates Old Town as it existed during the Mexican and early American periods, from its settlement in 1821, through 1872 when it lost its dominant position to Downtown.</p><br>
<p>The Old Town area is a popular tourist destination, known especially for its Mexican restaurants. The state park itself hosts several eating establishments, and other restaurants and gift shops are found in the surrounding neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Five original adobe buildings are part of the complex, which includes shops, restaurants and museums. Other historic buildings include a schoolhouse, a blacksmith shop, San Diegos first newspaper office, a cigar and pipe store, houses and gardens, and a stable with a carriage collection. There are also stores, with local artisans demonstrating their craft. The shops located in this area are festive and distinctive that capture the cultural history of San Diego. They have boutiques, antique stores, retro shops, outlet centers and local independently owned shops. They also have diverse shops that highlight upcoming artists work and their culture. There is no charge to enter the state park or any of its museums.</p><br>
<p>The museums include:</p><br>
<p>Plaza San Diego Viejo, also called Plaza de Las Armas and Washington Square</p><br>
<p>Casa de Estudillo, 1827 adobe house, a National Historic Landmark in its own right</p><br>
<p>Casa de Machado y Silvas, 1840s adobe</p><br>
<p>Casa de Machado y Stewart, a restored 19th century adobe</p><br>
<p>Blackhawk Smithy & Stable, which features blacksmith demonstrations</p><br>
<p>Colorado House, reconstructed 1850s hotel building that serves as the Wells Fargo History Museum(Now closed), featuring a reconstructed 19th-century stage stop and telegraph office</p><br>
<p>First San Diego Courthouse, a reconstructed mid-19th century courthouse</p><br>
<p>Johnson House, a reconstructed mid-19th century office building later the house of George Alonzo Johnson.</p><br>
<p>Mason Street School, the first public school house in San Diego</p><br>
<p>Racine and Laramie ("La Casa de Rodriguez"), a reconstructed mid-19th century period tobacconist</p><br>
<p>San Diego Union Museum, a mid-19th century period newspaper office and print shop</p><br>
<p>Seeley Stables, a reconstructed mid-19th century stable and barns that feature horse-drawn buggies, wagons, carriages and western memorabilia</p><br>
<p>Cosmopolitan Hotel and Restaurant ("La Casa de Bandini"), an 1870 restored hotel, still working as hotel and restaurant.</p><br>
<p>Living history demonstrations and free tours are regularly scheduled. Historical interpretation is primarily carried out by park employees and volunteers, and the Mexican Commercial corner is host to several locally based small businesses and artists.</p><br>
<h3>Commercial concessions</h3><br>
<p>The commercial facilities in Old Town State Park, such as restaurants and gift shops, are managed by outside contractors. For more than 30 years the largest single contractor was Bazaar del Mundo ("Bazaar of the World"), run by San Diego businesswoman Diane Powers. In a controversial move, in 2005 the state park agency did not renew her contract but awarded it to Plaza del Pasado ("Plaza of the Past"), run by Delaware North Companies. The goal was to create a more authentic and historically accurate presentation and appreciation of life and commerce in San Diego from 1821 to 1872. However revenue plunged under the new management. In spring 2009, Delaware North withdrew from its contract with the state and management changed hands to the Old Town Family Hospitality Corporation, headed by local restaurateur Chuck Ross. The commercial area is now called Fiesta de Reyes ("Festival of the Kings").</p><br>
<h3>Adjacent attractions</h3><br>
<p>Adjacent to the state park is Heritage County Park, run by San Diego County. It houses seven buildings from the 1880s and 1890s which have been moved there from elsewhere in the city.</p><br>
<p>Also nearby is the Mormon Battalion Historic Site. The city-owned Presidio Park, site of the original Presidio of San Diego, is on the adjacent hill.</p><br>
<p>The San Diego Sheriff&#39;s Museum and Educational Center is located in Old Town. It includes police equipment, uniforms, patrol car, helicopter, motorcycle, a jail cell and courtroom.</p><br>
<p>The Whaley House museum is also nearby.</p><br>
<p>McCoy House Museum, Old Town, San Diego, CA DSCN0409.JPGMcCoy House Museum</p><br>
<p>2019 Seeley Stable Museum 1.jpgSeeley Stable Museum</p><br>
<p>San Diego - Old Town Theatre 01.jpgOld Town Theater, currently used by Cygnet Theatre</p><br>
<p>Robinson-Rose House.jpgThe Robinson-Rose House, now the Visitor Center</p><br>
<p>Prospect Park South is a small neighborhood in Flatbush, Brooklyn, New York City, located south of Prospect Park. It is included within the Prospect Park South Historic District, which was designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1979 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. The historic district is bounded by Church Avenue to the north, the BMT Brighton Line of the New York City Subway to the east, Beverley Road to the south, and between Stratford Road and Coney Island Avenue to the west.</p><br>
<p>Prospect Park South, along with other neighborhoods within Flatbush, is policed by the 70th Precinct of the New York City Police Department.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1899, developer Dean Alvord purchased about 60 acre of farmland in order to create Prospect Park South, a community of substantial homes, a "rural park within the limitations of the conventional city block and city street." Alvord characterized the development as rus in urbe, the country in the city. The location was selected to take advantage of the train service on the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT). The line, now known as the BMT Brighton Line, offered express and local train service that remains to this day. The trains emerged at Fulton Street as an elevated line and continued across the Brooklyn Bridge to Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>Once he had purchased the land, Alvord laid out all the necessary utilities and marked the entrance of most streets with brick piers with cast concrete plaques bearing the bas-relief inscription "PPS". He also hired John Aitkin, a Scottish landscape gardener, to supervise the plantings for the lawns and the Flatbush Malls, with meticulous attention given to details. Trees, for instance, were not planted only along the curb line, but also at the building line as well, to give the streets greater breadth of vision, to block out adjoining houses, and provide the illusion that each house was the only one on the block. Both Norway maples and Carolina poplars were used: the poplars for immediate shade, and the slower-growing maples for long-term shade. Alvord did all this before selling a single plot.</p><br>
<p>Alvord also hired architect John J. Petit and a staff to design the houses in the development, although clients could also provide their own architect if they preferred to. Petit ended up designing many of the houses in the development, in a wide variety of styles, including Colonial Revival, Tudor Revival and Queen Anne. The houses in Prospect Park South were required to be substantial, freestanding homes exceeding 3,500 ft&sup2; and costing over US$5,000. Several other restrictions were also placed upon builders wishing to develop the lots.</p><br>
<p>Alvord wanted to create an environment that attracted the Protestant, wealthy elite while excluding the immigrant population moving into Brooklyn at the time. In his original prospectus, Alvord wrote:</p><br>
<p>In fixing upon a location for a home, it is pleasant to live where children, in going to and fro, are not subject to the annoyance of contact with the undesirable elements of society. The Flatbush Avenue trolley line penetrates no slum sections and is patronized almost exclusively by people of intelligence and good breeding.</p><br>
<p>While not the first attempt at suburban development in the area, Alvords vision excited the interest of the wealthy of Brooklyn Heights and Manhattan residents. Ultimately, Alvords restrictions not only created an exciting new design but a standard to become a blueprint for the modern suburb. Enthusiasm for his design in following years would see South Midwood, Fiske Terrace, Ditmas Park, the Beverley Squares, and many more developments spring up in the surrounding area to accommodate the demand, together forming what is now known as Victorian Flatbush.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, New York&#39;s Albanian community established a mosque at 1325 Albemarle Road.</p><br>
<p>Prospect Park South was designated as a historic district by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>John Giuca (born 1983), convicted of second-degree felony murder</p><br>
<p>Doreen Giuliano, mother of John Giuca, went undercover to investigate possible juror misconduct in his trial</p><br>
<p>Maya Wiley (born 1964), lawyer, professor, civil rights activist, and 2021 mayoral candidate for New York City</p><br>
<h2>Notable houses</h2><br>
<p>The Alvord Mansion at 1522 Albemarle Road was built by Alvord for his family. Later, it was purchased by Israel Matz, founder of the Ex-lax Company. The Alvord Mansion burned down c.1955 under mysterious conditions after its sale by the Matz family to apartment developers fell through in the face of community opposition.</p><br>
<p>Among the other notable houses in the neighborhood are:</p><br>
<p>Herman Goetze House, 15 Stratford Road, 1905, Colonial Revival, George Hitchings</p><br>
<p>Herbert Krantz House, 183 Argyle Road, 1904, Tudor Revival, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>George E. Gale House, 1305 Albemarle Road, 1905, Classical Revival, H. B. Moore</p><br>
<p>John S. Eakins House, 1306 Albemarle Road, 1905, Shingle style/Colonial Revival, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>Col. Alexander S. Bacon House, 101 Rugby Road, Eclectic/Swiss chalet, 1900, John E. Nitchie</p><br>
<p>Francis M Crafts House, 1423 Albemarle Road, 1899, Queen Anne, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>J. C. Woodhull House, 1440 Albemarle Road, 1905, Queen Anne/Colonial Revival, Robert Bryson and Carroll Pratt</p><br>
<p>Henry P. Reade House, 1501 Albemarle Road, 1904, Queen Anne, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>Maurice Minton House, 1510 Albemarle Road, 1900, Colonial Revival, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>Louis McDonald House, 1519 Albemarle Road, 1902, Prairie School/Neo-Jacobean, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>Frank K. Schenck House, 219 Marlborough Road, 1900, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>Russell Benedict House, 104 Buckingham Road, 1902, Classical Revival, Carroll H. Pratt</p><br>
<p>William H. McEntee House, 115 Buckingham Road, 1900, Shingle style, John J. Petit</p><br>
<p>George U. Tompers House, 125 Buckingham Road, 1911, Colonial Revival, Brun & Hauser</p><br>
<p>Frederick S. Kolle House, 131 Buckingham Road, 1902–03, Japanese pagoda, Petit & Green</p><br>
<p>William A. Norwood House, 143 Buckingham Road, 1906, Italian Villa, Walter S. Cassin</p><br>
<p>The Sovereign, 55 Parade Place, 1927, large residential complex across from the Brooklyn Parade Grounds</p><br>
<p>The Brown Palace Hotel, now The Brown Palace Hotel and Spa, Autograph Collection, is a historic hotel in Denver, Colorado, United States. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is the second-longest operating hotel in Denver. It is one of the first atrium-style hotels ever built. It is now operated by HEI Hotels and Resorts, and joined Marriott&#39;s Autograph Collection Hotels in 2012. The hotel is located at 321 17th Street between 17th Street, Broadway and Tremont Place in downtown Denver behind the Republic Plaza. The main entrance door is on Tremont Place. The Brown Palace Hotel, now The Brown Palace Hotel and Spa, Autograph Collection is member of  since 2023.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The hotel was built in 1892 of sandstone and red granite, one year later than the Oxford Hotel. It was named for its original owner, Henry C. Brown, who had homesteaded the Capitol Hill area, and was designed with its distinctive triangular shape by architect Frank Edbrooke, who also designed the Oxford Hotel. The interior and the exterior of the building are considered to be the "finest extant example" of Edbrooke&#39;s work.</p><br>
<p>Built with an iron and steel frame covered with cement and sandstone by the Whitehouse & Wirgler Stone Company, the building was "one of Americas first fireproof structures, according to a May 21, 1892 cover story in Scientific American." Upon its completion it was Denvers tallest building.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1930s Colorado muralist Allen Tupper True began discussing the possibility of creating two murals for the hotel with then owner Denver financier Charles Boettcher and after some delay the two works, Stage Coach and Airplane Travel were unveiled in the hotel&#39;s lobby in 1937.</p><br>
<p>In 1935, as a celebration of the Repeal of Prohibition in the United States, Denver architect Alan Fisher designed "Ship Tavern&quot one of four restaurants inside The Brown Palace.</p><br>
<h2>Annex</h2><br>
<p>The 22-story, 231-room tower directly across Tremont Place was built as a new wing of the hotel in 1959, known as the Brown Palace West. For many years it operated as a budget wing of the hotel, until the Brown Palace&#39;s owners branded the guest rooms in the annex as a Comfort Inn in 1988, and then as a Holiday Inn Express in December 2014. The lower levels of the tower are shared with the Brown Palace, including the Grand Ballroom and executive offices. The tower is connected to the main building by a skybridge over Tremont Place and a service tunnel running under the street.</p><br>
<h2>Past guests</h2><br>
<p>Past guests include the "Unsinkable" Molly Brown (she stayed at the hotel only a week after the Titanic disaster), infamous Denver crime boss Jefferson "Soapy" Smith, Dr. Sun Yat Sen (just before becoming the president of the new Republic of China), Denver Socialite Louise Sneed Hill, Queen Marie of Romania, John Wayne, and The Beatles. Presidential guests include William Taft, Warren Harding, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. John Galen Locke passed away there 1935 while at a political meeting.</p><br>
<h2>Murders of 1911</h2><br>
<p>The hotel was the site of the high-profile 1911 murders in which Frank Henwood shot and killed Sylvester Louis "Tony" von Phul, and accidentally killed an innocent bystander, George Copeland, in the hotel&#39;s "Marble Bar." Henwood and von Phul were rivals for (or shared) the affections of Denver socialite Isabel Springer, the wife of wealthy Denver businessman and political candidate John W. Springer. The murders culminated in a series of very public trials.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In Joan Didions 1977 novel A Book of Common Prayer, the narrator, Grace Strasser-Mendana, lives at the Brown Palace after her parents deaths.</p><br>
<p>The hotel features in the 2017 Jane Fonda and Robert Redford film Our Souls at Night.</p><br>
<p>It features in the time travel novel “Warm Souls” - Part 2 of the “Wealth of Time” series by Andre Gonzalez. The Brown Palace is featured on many of Denver&#39;s cultural tours.</p><br>
<p>The House of the Seven Gables  is a 1668 colonial mansion in Salem, Massachusetts, named for its gables. It was made famous by Nathaniel Hawthorne&#39;s 1851 novel The House of the Seven Gables. The house is now a non-profit museum, with an admission fee charged for tours, as well as an active settlement house with programs for the local immigrant community including ESL and citizenship classes. It was built for Captain John Turner and stayed with the family for three generations.</p><br>
<h2>The house</h2><br>
<p>The earliest section of the House of the Seven Gables was built in 1668 for Captain John Turner, a wealthy sea captain and merchant who was born in Salem, Massachusetts in 1644. Turner partially funded the houses construction through his business of selling fish to slave plantations in the West Indies. The property remained in his familys possession for three generations, descending from John Turner II to John Turner III. Facing south towards Salem Harbor, it was originally a two-room, -story house with a projecting front porch and a massive central chimney. This portion now forms the middle of the house. Four windows of the original ground-floor room (which became a dining room) remain in the house&#39;s side wall.</p><br>
<p>A few years later, a kitchen lean-to and a new north kitchen ell to the rear of the house were added. By 1676, Turner had added a spacious south (front) extension with its own chimney, containing a parlor on the ground floor, with a large bed chamber above it. Ceilings in this new wing are higher than the very low ceilings in older parts of the house. The new wing featured double casement windows and an overhang with carved pendants; it was capped with a three-gabled garret.</p><br>
<p>In the first half of the 18th century, John Turner II remodeled the house in the new Georgian style, adding wood paneling and sash windows. These alterations are preserved, very early examples of Georgian decor. The House of the Seven Gables is one of the oldest surviving timber-framed mansion houses in continental North America, with 17 rooms and over 8,000 ft&sup2; including its large cellars.</p><br>
<p>After John Turner III lost the family fortune, the house was acquired by the Ingersolls, who remodeled it again. Gables were removed, porches replaced, and Georgian trim added.</p><br>
<h2>Inspiration for Hawthorne</h2><br>
<p>Nathaniel Hawthorne, a relative of the Ingersolls, was infamous for being reclusive during his time living in Salem, in part because Hawthorne himself exaggerated his reputation. He occasionally played whist, for example, with his sister Louisa, his second cousin Susannah Ingersoll, and Ingersolls adopted son Horace Connolly. Hawthorne was occasionally entertained in the house by Susannah but, by Hawthornes time, the house had only three gables after a renovation to match more current architectural trends. His cousin told him the houses history, and showed him beams and mortises in the attic indicating locations of former gables. Hawthorne was more inspired by the way "seven gables" sounded than what the house looked like. As he wrote in a letter, "The expression was new and struck me forcibly... I think I shall make something of it." The idea inspired Hawthornes novel The House of the Seven Gables.</p><br>
<p>Hawthorne wrote of the house as if it were a living thing. It is described as such in the novel: "The aspect of the venerable mansion has always affected me like a human countenance... It was itself like a great human heart, with a life of its own, and full of rich and sombre reminisces. The deep projection of the section story gave the house a meditative look, that you could not pass it without the idea that it had secret to keep." In writing the book, Hawthorne compared the process to constructing an actual house. In January 1851, he wrote to his publisher James T. Fields that the book was nearly finished, "only I am hammering away a little on the roof, and doing a few odd jobs that were left incomplete." He sent the finished manuscript to Fields by the end of the month. The House of the Seven Gables was published in April 1851.</p><br>
<p>Horace Ingersoll, Susannas adopted son, told Hawthorne a story of Acadian lovers that later inspired Henry Wadsworth Longfellows 1847 poem Evangeline.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>In 1908, the house was purchased by Caroline O. Emmerton, founder of the House of Seven Gables Settlement Association, and she restored it from 1908 to 1910 as a museum whose admission fees would support the association. Boston architect Joseph Everett Chandler supervised the restoration, which among other alterations reconstructed missing gables. In some cases historical authenticity was sacrificed in the interest of appealing to visitors, who expected the house to match the one Hawthorne described in his romantic novel. Thus, for example, Emmerton added a "cent-shop" resembling that operated by the authors fictional character Hepzibah Pyncheon. A representation of "Maules Well" was added to the garden.</p><br>
<p>She also added what looks like a wood closet but has a false back. When opened, the back leads to a secret staircase which leads up to the attic.</p><br>
<p>Many interesting features of the original mansion remain, including unusual forms of wall insulation, original beams and rafters, and extensive Georgian paneling.</p><br>
<p>The Nathaniel Hawthorne Birthplace is now immediately adjacent to the House of the Seven Gables, and access to it is granted with either a regular admission fee or a grounds pass. Although it is indeed the house in which Hawthorne was born and lived to the age of four, the house was sited a few blocks away on Union Street when he inhabited it.</p><br>
<p>In 1994, the Seamans Visitor Center was opened at the historic site. The visitor center was named in honor of the Seamans family; Donald C. Seamans was responsible for the building project when he was president of the House of the Seven Gables Settlement Association.</p><br>
<p>On March 29, 2007, the House of the Seven Gables Historic District was designated a National Historic Landmark District.</p><br>
<p>As of 2022, The House of the Seven Gables opened to the public in April 1910 and has seen millions of visitors since.</p><br>
<p>Dollar Savings Bank of New York was a bank that operated in New York City between 1890 and 2004.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Dollar Savings Bank of New York was formed on June 23, 1890, of possibly 1887, founded by John Haffen.</p><br>
<p>In February 1983, after it was on the verge of bank failure, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the New York State Banking Department arranged for a merger of the bank with Dry Dock Savings Bank to form Dollar Dry Dock Savings Bank.</p><br>
<p>On February 21, 1992, the bank and its 21 branches were seized by the New York State Banking Department with the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation named as receiver. Emigrant Savings Bank bought 20 of the branches and the Flushing branch was purchased by Apple Bank.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the headquarters building in the Bronx was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The Colorado State Capitol Building, located at 200 East Colfax Avenue in Denver, Colorado, United States, is the home of the Colorado General Assembly and the offices of the Governor of Colorado, Lieutenant Governor of Colorado, and the Colorado State Treasurer.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building is intentionally reminiscent of the United States Capitol. Designed by Elijah E. Myers, it was constructed in the 1890s from Colorado white granite, and opened for use in November 1894. The distinctive gold dome consists of real gold leaf, first added in 1908, commemorating the Colorado Gold Rush. The building is part of Denver&#39;s Civic Center area. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of the Civic Center Historic District in 1974, and became part of the Denver Civic Center National Historic Landmark District in 2012.</p><br>
<p>A major safety upgrade project, funded by the Colorado State Historical Fund, was started in 2001 and completed in 2009. The design by Fentress Architects added modern safety features, like enclosed stair towers, that blended in with the original architecture. The Colorado Capitol Building is featured on many of Denver&#39;s architectural tours.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<p>Serving as the beginning of the Capitol Hill district, the historic building sits slightly higher than the rest of downtown Denver. The main entrance hall is open 180 feet (55 m) to the top of the dome, about the height of an 18-story building. Additionally, the official elevation of Denver is measured outside the west entrance to the building, where the fifteenth step is engraved with the words "One Mile Above Sea Level". From this step, at 5,280 ft, the sun can be seen setting behind the Rocky Mountains. A second mile high marker was set in the 18th step in 1969 when Colorado State University students resurveyed the elevation. In 2003, a more accurate measurement was made with modern means, and the 13th step was identified as being one mile (1.6 km) high, where a 3rd marker was installed.</p><br>
<h3>Materials</h3><br>
<p>The superstructure of the building was constructed using granite from the Aberdeen Quarry near Gunnison, Colorado. Approximately 280,000 cuft or 24,000 tons of the granite were quarried for the building. This gray granite forms the exterior of the building. The interior of the building uses a large amount of Colorado Rose Onyx, a rare rose marble from a quarry near Beulah, Colorado. The amount used in the building consumed the entire known supply. White Yule Marble from the quarries near Marble, Colorado was also used throughout the capitol for the floors. Many designs have been found in the marble including an image resembling George Washington and another of Molly Brown.</p><br>
<p>Many of the windows are made of stained glass, depicting people or events related to the history of Colorado. The halls are decorated with portraits of every president of the United States, with all the presidents from George Washington to George W. Bush being painted by Lawrence Williams. Painter Sarah A. Boardman took over from Williams, and has since painted Barack Obama, and Donald Trump. Colorado artist Kirsten Savage has been commissioned to paint President Joe Biden. One of the contractors for the construction of the Colorado State Capitol building was Illinois building contractor William Douglas Richardson, who was the president of the W. D. Richardson Construction Company. Richardson had participated in numerous major building contracts throughout the United States, and was interconnected with the Jacob Bunn and John Whitfield Bunn network of corporations.</p><br>
<p>Colorado - Denver - NARA - 23936019 (cropped).jpgAerial view, 1932</p><br>
<p>The Lovell House or Lovell Health House is an International style modernist residence designed and built by Richard Neutra between 1927 and 1929. The home, located at 4616 Dundee Drive in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, was built for the physician and naturopath Philip Lovell. It is considered a major monument in architectural history, and was a turning point in Neutra&#39;s career.</p><br>
<p>It is often described as the first steel frame house in the United States, and also an early example of the use of gunite (sprayed-on concrete). Neutra was familiar with steel construction due to his earlier work with the Chicago firm Holabird & Roche. Neutra served as the contractor for the project because no residential contractors were willing to construct a steel frame home due to the industry&#39;s unfamiliarity with and outright distaste for industrial materials employed for residential work.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Philip Lovell was enchanted with the house and praised his architect publicly. Lovell had previously commissioned architect Rudolf Schindler to build the landmark Lovell Beach House in 1926. Neutra and Schindler were contemporaries in Europe and the Neutras lived with the Schindlers (Schindler House) when they first settled in Los Angeles in 1925. Lovell chose Neutra instead of Schindler to build his Los Angeles home while they were living under the same roof. Neutra was known for his relationships with his clients—he thought of himself as a therapist and the client his patient. He spent time getting to know his clients and analyzed their needs.</p><br>
<p>The Lovell house was specially designed according to Dr. Phillip Lovells naturopathic tendencies which included a program or guide to healthy living. The house paid homage to Lovells desire for exposure to natural lighting. A practice that was established as a cure for illness. The design of the house was fit for the environment and exercise. Through these specified design elements, the house was coined with the term the Health House.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Philip Lovell&#39;s unconventional health philosophies heavily influenced the design and purpose of the Lovell House. Known for his advocacy of natural living, Lovell emphasized the integration of health-focused features such as outdoor spaces for sunbathing, a rooftop solarium, and rooms designed to maximize UV exposure. The home was one of the first in Los Angeles to include spaces dedicated to nude sunbathing, outdoor exercise, and vegetarian meal preparation, aligning with his belief in heliotherapy and drug-free living.</p><br>
<p>Lovell&#39;s health-oriented ideals extended beyond architecture; he was a naturopath and a prominent health columnist for the Los Angeles Times. His columns, lectures, and radio broadcasts popularized alternative health practices in California, and the Lovell House became a physical manifestation of his lifestyle beliefs. This combination of health and architecture marked a significant departure from traditional residential designs of the time.</p><br>
<p>The Lovell house was an expensive house during the time. Lovell paid his contractor $58,672.32. Leah and Philip Lovell had differing views on what they remembered the cost estimate to be. Philip recalled $37,000, while Leah thought, $48,000. There was still an outstanding fee of $413 for Richard Neutra in 1930, which was apart of the estimated total of $5863.</p><br>
<p>The Lovell House was purchased in 1961 by Morton and Betty Topper. It was added to the list of Registered Historic Places in Los Angeles in 1971.</p><br>
<p>In 2021, art dealers Iwan and Manuela Wirth purchased the property for $8.75 million, "with plans to bring back its original lustre."</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The Lovell House underwent multiple design iterations before its final construction. Early designs included an L-shaped structure descending a hillside in three levels, connected by a long balcony on the third floor. These designs emphasized stepped masses and earth ramps leading to a tennis court, reflecting the natural integration central to Richard Neutra&#39;s architectural philosophy. Despite its later designation as the "Health House," none of the initial designs included the extensive exercise facilities originally envisioned by Dr. Lovell.</p><br>
<p>In its final form, the house incorporated innovative structural elements, such as open-web steel joists and four-inch-square steel posts spaced at five-foot intervals, emphasizing Neutra&#39;s mastery of steel construction techniques. While the steel cantilevers appear freestanding, they are supported by the roof structure. The exterior design features horizontal bands of metal lath and white stucco, creating visual rhythm by juxtaposing vertical and horizontal lines. These bands are further enhanced by the interplay of steel-framed windows and screens, which create a modular appearance emblematic of modernist principles.</p><br>
<p>The 4,800 ft&sup2, three-story house aesthetically follows many of the principles of the International Style. It was included in the 1932 exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York that retrospectively defined the style. In essence it reflects Neutras interest in industrial production, and this is most evident in the repetitive use of factory-made window assemblies. In fact, Neutras apprentice Harwell Hamilton Harris suggested that Neutra was drawn to America because of Henry Ford.</p><br>
<p>The Lovell House design incorporates functional spaces that reflect both modernist principles and the needs of its inhabitants. The main staircase, described as wide and open, connects the living quarters with a spacious area featuring floor-to-ceiling plate glass windows, providing sweeping views of the ocean and city. A centrally positioned fireplace in this space allows guests to simultaneously enjoy warmth and the dramatic evening skyline, exemplifying Neutra&#39;s focus on blending comfort with scenic integration.</p><br>
<p>A dedicated library space for over a thousand volumes showcases adjustable shelving, direct and indirect lighting through a 52-foot trough, and natural materials such as mouse gray carpeting and natural-colored drapes. The library&#39;s design includes a cozy corner with access to an outdoor patio and features built-in telephones and furnishings that highlight the forerunner of modern American interior finishes.</p><br>
<p>The interior reflects Neutra&#39;s interest in Cubism, transparency, and hygiene. The "minimal" detailing shows the influence of Irving Gill. In another nod to industrial production, Neutra installed two Ford Model-A headlights in the main stairwell. (The headlights were provided by Neutra apprentice Gregory Ain.) The Historic American Buildings Survey described the Lovell House as "a prime example of residential architecture where technology creates the environment."</p><br>
<p>The exterior consisted of a lightweight steel frame construction. The building used standard sections that related to the unit plan. The porches and balconies hung down from the roof level. This was done in order to avoid scattering the depth. The walls outside were 3.6" expanded metal reinforced with 1 1/4" of dense concrete walls (using spray-on concrete). The entrance of the house is on the top story, through a terrace. Upon entry, there is a framed view of an extravagant stairway. The main level of the house enclosed the living, dining, and guest rooms. The main level also had the kitchen while the top floor consisted of the family bedrooms.</p><br>
<h2>In film productions & photography</h2><br>
<p>The house was used in the 1997 film L.A. Confidential as the home of Pierce Morehouse Patchett, played by David Strathairn. It was also depicted in the film Beginners (Mike Mills, 2010) as the home of Oliver (Ewan McGregor) and his father Hal (Christopher Plummer). The house was first photographed by Willard Morgan (1900-1967). Photographs of the building were regarded highly so that the building could be seen by many other people. These images were included in the Modern Architecture exhibition of 1932 at the New York&#39;s Museum of Modern Art (MOMA).</p><br>
<p>El Campo Santo  is a cemetery located at the Workman and Temple Family Homestead Museum, 15415 East Don Julian Road, in City of Industry, California.</p><br>
<p>As one of the oldest private cemeteries in Southern California, El Campo Santo contains the remains of the pioneering Workman-Temple family as well as Pío Pico, the last governor of Alta California, and other prominent pioneer families. Within its low brick walls, the one-half acre cemetery features a Neoclassical mausoleum and a small cemetery plot surrounded by a Gothic Revival cast-iron fence.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1850s, the family of William Workman (1799–1867) established El Campo Santo, or "the sacred ground," as a cemetery solely for the use of their family. Along with a cemetery plot enclosed by an ornate cast-iron fence, they built a Gothic Revival brick chapel dedicated to Saint Nicholas by Bishop Thaddeus Amat of Los Angeles. Among the first to be buried here was William Workman&#39;s brother David Workman (1797–1855), who was killed in an accident while driving cattle to the gold fields in Northern California.</p><br>
<p>At the turn of the 20th century, the cemetery was abandoned and its brick chapel destroyed by fire. Walter P. Temple, a grandson of the Workmans, successfully filed a lawsuit preventing any further desecration of the cemetery. In 1917, he was able to purchase the cemetery and the surrounding 75 acre and began restoration. In place of the chapel, however, he built a cast stone Neoclassical mausoleum and moved the remains of his family inside. In 1921, he also transferred the remains of Pío Pico and his wife, Ygnacia Alvarado de Pico, from old Calvary Cemetery on North Broadway in Downtown Los Angeles, which was being relocated, and had them entombed in the mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>The Workman Home and Family Cemetery are designated California Historical Landmark No. 874. The cemetery was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, No. 145, on November 20, 1974.</p><br>
<p>El Campo Santo is open to visitors through a self-guided tour described in the free brochure available at the museum office.</p><br>
<p>Cemetery.2.JPGThe mausoleum from the side</p><br>
<p>Cemetery.3.JPGThe cemetery plot</p><br>
<p>Bear Butte is a geological laccolith feature located near Sturgis, South Dakota, United States, that was established as a State Park in 1961. An important landmark and religious site for the Plains Indians tribes long before Europeans reached South Dakota, Bear Butte is called Matȟó Pahá, or Bear Mountain, by the Lakota, or Sioux. To the Cheyenne, it is known as Noahȧ-vose  or Náhkȯhe-vose , and is the place where Maheoo  imparted to Sweet Medicine, a Cheyenne prophet, the knowledge from which the Cheyenne derive their religious, political, social, and economic customs.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is sacred to many indigenous peoples, who make pilgrimages to leave prayer cloths and tobacco bundles tied to the branches of the trees along the mountain&#39;s flanks. Other offerings are often left at the top of the mountain. The site is associated with various religious ceremonies throughout the year. The mountain is a place of prayer, meditation, and peace.</p><br>
<p>The park includes a campsite west of South Dakota Highway 79 where horseback riding, fishing, and boating are permitted. On the summit side of Highway 79, a moderately sized herd of bison roams the base of the mountain. An education center and a summit trail are available. Official park policy advises visitors to Bear Butte to respect worshipers and to leave religious offerings undisturbed. Park fees are waived for those undertaking religious activities. Some nearby land was also obtained by some Native American tribes in later years as well.</p><br>
<h2>Geological history</h2><br>
<p>Bear Butte is not strictly a butte (created primarily by erosion of sedimentary strata), but a laccolith: an intrusive body of igneous rock, uplifting the earlier sedimentary layers, which have since largely eroded away. This is the result of the forcible entry (or intrusion) of magma into cooler crustal rock in the Black Hills area during the Eocene Epoch. In this, Bear Butte shares a similar geological history with other formations in the region, including the Black Hills, Devils Tower, the Missouri Buttes, and some parts of the Rocky Mountains. It is possible that when the intrusion was emplaced, some magma may have breached the surface, forming a volcano; however, it would have eroded away long ago.</p><br>
<p>The peak rises 1,253.5 ft above the surrounding plain and measures 4,426 ft above sea level.</p><br>
<h2>Modern history</h2><br>
<p>Human artifacts have been found on or near Bear Butte that date back 10,000 years, indicating a long and continuous interest in the mountain. The Cheyenne and Lakota people have maintained a spiritual interest in Bear Butte from their earliest recorded history.</p><br>
<p>Notable visitors like Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and Sitting Bull made pilgrimages to the site. In 1857, a council of many Indian nations gathered at Bear Butte to discuss the growing presence of white settlers in the Black Hills.</p><br>
<p>Violating a treaty of 1868, George Armstrong Custer led an expedition to the Black Hills region in 1874, and according to custom he camped near Bear Butte. Custer verified the rumors of gold in the Black Hills, and Bear Butte then served as an easily identifiable landmark for the rush of invading prospectors and settlers into the region. Indian reaction to the illegal movements of whites into the area was intense and hostile. Ultimately the government reneged on its treaty obligations regarding the Black Hills and instead embarked on a program to confine all northern Plains tribes to reservations.</p><br>
<p>Ezra Bovee homesteaded on the southern slopes of the mountain, and by the time of World War II, he and his family were the legal owners of the site. In the spring of 1945, the Northern Cheyenne received permission from Bovee to hold a ceremony at Bear Butte to pray for the end of World War II. The Cheyenne found that the Bovee family welcomed their interest in the mountain, and over the years the Bovees continued to encourage native religious ceremonies.</p><br>
<p>By the mid-1950s Ezra Bovee was attempting to stir up interest in making Bear Butte a national park. After his death, his family continued the effort. When federal interest in the project waned, the state government in Pierre took action, and Bear Butte became a state park in 1961 and was registered as a National Historic Landmark in 1981.</p><br>
<p>Frank Fools Crow, the Lakota ceremonial chief (d. 1989), made pilgrimages to Bear Butte throughout his lifetime. Fools Crow taught racial harmony not just between whites and Indians, but among all the peoples of the world. He believed the Lakota should never sell the Black Hills. A bust and plaque in front of the education center at Bear Butte State Park honor Fools Crow&#39;s efforts.</p><br>
<p>Frank Fools Crow was the plaintiff in one of the most prominent attempts by Native Americans to gain access to sacred lands under the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978. The case, Fools Crow v. Gullett, related to the introduction in 1982 of limits on when and for how long Lakota and Cheyenne religious ceremonies could take place on the Bluff. The Indian Americans argued that both the American Indian Religious Freedom Act and the First Amendment protected their right to unlimited access to the Bluff. They also wanted the Bluff to remain untouched as it was sacred. The plaintiffs lost their case on both the District and Appellate level and were denied a hearing by the Supreme Court.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the National Trust for Historic Preservation included Bear Butte on its list of the 11 Most Endangered Places. Between 2016 and 2018, Native American tribes such as the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribe of Oklahoma, the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of Montana and the Rosebud Sioux Tribe of South Dakota acquired land around the butte due to the cultural significance.</p><br>
<p>The Dundee–Happy Hollow Historic District is located west of Midtown Omaha, Nebraska. It covers the area between Harney Street on the south, Hamilton Street on the north, Happy Hollow Boulevard on the west, and 46th Street on the east. The "heart" of Dundee is located at 50th and Underwood Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. It was founded in 1880 and annexed into the city in 1915. Dundee is home to Warren Buffett and nationally syndicated editorial cartoonist Jeff Koterba and was the hometown of filmmaker Alexander Payne. Actor Henry Fonda additionally lived in the Dundee neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood was developed in 1880 and has been dubbed Omaha&#39;s first suburb.</p><br>
<p>The Shannon Brothers of Kansas City were hired to construct six homes between 48th and 52nd Street, Capitol to California. The brothers had just converted the Kansas City Fairgrounds on the edge of Downtown Kansas City into a planned residential development called Dundee Place and they hoped to do the same in Omaha. Unlike other suburban development where the houses look similar, the houses in Dundee were built to look distinctive.</p><br>
<p>The Omaha Herald on October 30, 1888 noted neighborhood covenants required that the buildings be for residential purposes only, stand at least 25 feet away from the street, cost at least $2500, and not be "used for any immoral or illegal business, nor shall any spirits or malt liquors be sold or bartered away."</p><br>
<p>The houses did not initially sell well and the developers set out to create the neighborhood as a self-contained village. Developers planted 2,000 maple trees along the roadways (one of which was named Underwood for one of the developers). In 1905 developer Luke Toot O&#39;Keefe offered free lots if the buyer built. If the buyer stayed for more than a year he got a bonus of $500. Interest in the neighborhood skyrocketed and the developers expanded to be south of Dodge Street and north of Cuming Street.</p><br>
<p>C.C. and J.E. George laid out Happy Hollow Boulevard and developed the area south of Dodge and west of 50th to Elmwood Park. They filled in the creek that ran along 50th Street and added sidewalks and the Dundee lights. Homes in the area reflected the Colonial, Georgian and Tudor Revival styles. Omaha annexed Dundee on June 20, 1915. At that time it was and had 2500 residents.</p><br>
<p>The district includes 30 known works by Omaha architect F. A. Henninger.</p><br>
<h3>World War II bombing</h3><br>
<p>In April 1945 a Japanese fire balloon exploded over Dundee. The incident was part of a large World War II campaign by the Japanese military to cause mass chaos in American cities. However, the story was suppressed by the American military until after the war was over. Nobody was hurt in the explosion.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>This central Omaha neighborhood is home to Dundee Elementary School, which is in the Omaha Public Schools district. Brownell-Talbot School is a historic, traditionally Episcopalian school. St. Margaret Marys school is the local Catholic school. SMM was rated the citys best private school when it received the "Blue Ribbon Award" in 2006. On the outskirts of Dundee is Harrison Elementary School, which is also part of the Omaha Public Schools. Most children from the two OPS elementary schools attend Lewis & Clark Middle School, and then Omaha Central High School. The area is renowned for its numerous historic residences.</p><br>
<h2>Parks and attractions</h2><br>
<p>Two major area parks are in the neighborhood are Memorial Park and Elmwood Park. St. Margaret Mary Catholic Church and Dundee Presbyterian Church (the church Warren Buffett attended and in which he was married) are among many congregations in Dundee. The area is home to numerous businesses, including the Dundee Dell, the Dundee Theatre, the Blue Line Coffee Shop, Exist Green Zero Waste Market and Refillery, the Underwood Bar, and eCreamery Ice Cream and Gelato. The area is promoted and preserved by the Dundee-Memorial Park Association. St. Margaret Mary Catholic Church and the associated school are known for extreme pride in their neighborhood. Dundee annually hosts Dundee Day, featuring a neighborhood festival and dance showdown.</p><br>
<p>Warren Buffett, the "Oracle of Omaha", lives in a house bought for $31,500 in 1958 in Dundee ($340,000 in 2024), on the corner of Farnam and 55th. The average sales price of a home in Dundee as of December 31st, 2023 is $379,544.</p><br>
<p>Dundee Community Garden, located on 49th and Underwood, serves as a neighborhood common space open to the public. Plots for planting are available to community members for a nominal fee. Members of the garden routinely provide free vegetables from the communal beds to underserved population in the community.</p><br>
<h2>American Planning Association&#39;s Great American Places of 2011</h2><br>
<p>Dundee-Memorial Park district has been named one of APA&#39;s Great American Places of 2011 because of the neighborhoods pro-active vibrant community. The community has developed a street car plan and they seek National Register status. The community also created an adopt-a-streetlight program with efforts to restore 328 historic cast-iron poles. They pushed to be named a neighborhood conservation and enhancement district. The neighborhood offers a variety of architecture as well as two major parks in Omaha, Nebraska.</p><br>
<p>The city has made many substantial efforts to improve the daily life within the neighborhood. They decided to allocate “$550,000 of $2.2 million needed to implement merchant-funded street-scape master plan (2009) to improve traffic flow, increase parking, and add amenities.” Dundee Neighborhood Conservation-Enhancement District Plan has also preserved a two block district for historical preservation.</p><br>
<p>Sixth Street is a historic street and entertainment district in Austin, Texas, located within the citys urban core in downtown Austin. Sixth Street was formerly named Pecan Street under Austins older naming convention, which had east–west streets named after trees and north–south streets named after Texas rivers .</p><br>
<p>The nine-block area of West Sixth Street roughly between Lavaca Street to the west and Interstate 35 to the east is recognized as the Sixth Street Historic District and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on December 30, 1975. Developed as one of Austin&#39;s trade and commercial districts in the late 1800s, the predominant building style are two- or three-story masonry Victorian commercial architecture. Most structures in the area had already been built by the 1880s, though a few notable exceptions include the Driskill Hotel (1886), the Scarbrough Building (1910), and the Littlefield Building.</p><br>
<p>The area around nearby 4th Street and 6th Street has been a major entertainment district since the 1970s. Many bars, clubs, music venues, and shopping destinations are located on West 6th Street between Congress Avenue and Interstate 35, and many offer live music at one time or another during the week. Traffic is generally blocked on East 6th Street and most crossroads from I-35 to Brazos Street on weekend evenings, and football home games (depending on pedestrian traffic), as well as holidays and special events, to allow the crowds to walk unfettered to the many venues that line the street.</p><br>
<p>East Sixth Street (known locally as Dirty Sixth) plays host to a wide variety of events each year, ranging from music and film festivals (such as South by Southwest) to biker rallies (such as The Republic of Texas Biker Rally) and the Pecan Street Festival.</p><br>
<p>The area of Sixth Street west of Lavaca is known as the West 6th Street District. Recently, a movement has been growing to develop this area as an entertainment district of its own, geared toward the live-music crowd.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Austin was planned on a 15-block grid plan developed by Edwin Waller that was bisected by Congress Avenue running north–south. The Bastrop Highway linking the town to earlier settlements in East Texas was charted in 1839 and chose the route into Austin along Pecan Street. The stagecoach followed this route when it arrived in Austin in 1840, and used the Bullock Hotel at the northwest corner of Pecan and Congress as the stage stop. The Bullock, built in 1839 by Richard Bullock, was a complex of log building which served as the quasiformal and informal meeting place in Austin for several years. That particular intersection quickly became the focal point of town life.</p><br>
<p>The town grew like a cross up and down Congress and Pecan. Pecan had an obvious advantage for development. The street was far enough from the river to escape flooding, which occasionally spread as far as Cypress Street (3rd Street), and it was the last east–west street flat enough for wagons and pedestrians to travel comfortably. Following an explosive growth in town population between 1850 and 1860, Pecan soon contained not only log and frame houses, but also was lined with wagon yards, livery stables, and saloons to meet the needs of travelers. Austin&#39;s first bridge was built to carry Pecan Street across Shoal Creek in 1865, though the narrow iron footbridge, built by the United States Army, could not carry wagon traffic.</p><br>
<p>While the Civil War interrupted Sixth Streets growth in the 1860s, the following years were the height of Sixth Streets importance as a commercial center. The arrival of the railroad in 1871 was very much to Sixth Streets benefit, as some of Austins most prestigious business enterprises were located here to be near the railroad depot. Lots along the street were in great demand and fine two- and three-story limestone Victorian commercial structures began to line the streets where one-story frame buildings or vacant lots had been. In 1887, a new, larger bridge across Shoal Creek was built to match the full 80 ft width of Sixth Street and permit wagons to cross; this West Sixth Street Bridge is still in use today, and has since been added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>During the late 1880s, however, Congress Avenue began to pre-empt Sixth Street as the most fashionable shopping destination in the city. The new Capitol building was being built at the head of Congress and most businesses catering to city-dwellers and/or a state government clientele moved to a Congress location. Sixth Street, though, continued to function as a site for offices, warehouses, and showrooms of businesses using the railroad, as well as to businesses catering to farmers or other travelers. In 1886, the famous four-story Driskill Hotel was completed at 122 E. 6th Street. Called "the finest hotel south of St. Louis", the hotel was built in a Romanesque Revival style by Jesse Driskill, a cattleman who spent his fortune constructing it.</p><br>
<p>Scarbrough and Hicks department store, founded on the southwest corner of 6th and Congress in 1893, decided to remain in this same location in 1909 when it undertook the construction of Austin&#39;s first modern skyscraper; the Scarbrough Building is an eight-story brick building in the Commercial style. George Littlefield chose the northeast corner of that intersection in 1911 for a 9-story brick and limestone building to be built to house his American Bank.</p><br>
<p>A biracial character was evident along Sixth Street during this period of development, although it became more pronounced in the 1890s and early 1900s. For example, a black physician had an office in the 300 block of East Sixth, and several businesses on the north side of the 400 and 500 blocks were operated by blacks and catered to Austins black community. By the early 20th century, racial and ethnic diversity had become one of Sixth Streets most striking characteristics. Lebanese businesses also began to appear on 6th Street in the 1890s. One of the first Lebanese immigrants to Austin, Cater Joseph, opened a confectionery on Congress in the 1880s. The Joseph family still maintains a business on East 6th Street, as do several other Lebanese and Syrian families who founded businesses there in the early 20th century. By 1940, businesses on 6th Street were owned by blacks, Jewish, German, Chinese, and Mexican-Americans, as well.</p><br>
<p>A steady erosion of the commercial importance of the East 6th Street area occurred in the 1940s and particularly accelerated after World War II. A proliferation of second-hand stores, chain and discount stores catered to a lower-income clientele, followed by an increasing number of vacated buildings. A skid-row atmosphere was fostered in the 1950s and 1960s by the multiplying number of pawn shops, loan companies, and bars in the area. However, a number of owner-operated businesses kept the area alive for commercial activity.</p><br>
<p>One of the last residents on Sixth Street was local architect David Graeber. Graeber purchased the building at 410 E. 6th Street and made it his familys residence until he died in 2010. The building is notable as the last building on Sixth Street to be used exclusively as a primary residence. The buildings interior was modern for the time, including an indoor swimming pool, and substantial sound mitigation.</p><br>
<p>The Ritz, a historic theater, open its doors on 320 E. 6th Street in 1929. Throughout its history, the Ritz was used as a movie theater, music hall, club, comedy house, and more. It reopened after renovations in fall 2007 as the new downtown location for the Alamo Drafthouse. On March 20, 2007, the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema announced that they would be relocating their downtown cinema, which was the original theater opened in 1997, to the Ritz. They began construction on April 1, 2007, to revive the Ritz as a movie theater.</p><br>
<p>Since May 2014, a parking ban is enforced from Thursday evening to Saturday night inside the entertainment district (Interstate 35 to San Jacinto Street) which ends at 2 a.m. past midnight which is defined as a Sunday based on the 24 hour clock) - plans to make the Sixth Street district vehicle free was considered prior to a SXSW &#39;14 drunk driving incident back in March where several pedestrians were struck.</p><br>
<h2>Pecan Street Festival</h2><br>
<p>Until the 1970s, Sixth Street was in decline and downtown was scarcely populated, with abandoned buildings scattered about. A pioneering group of Austinites, including Dr. Emma Lou Linn, known as the Old Pecan Street Association, was instrumental in reclaiming the downtown space and starting renovation of the old buildings. The association needed adequate funding for restoration costs and bringing a street fair to life was a solution to their problems.</p><br>
<p>In 1978, the Pecan Street Festival was started and included local food and art vendors along with bands from the surrounding area, establishing a community event for cultural preservation and creativity. Due to the festivals positive turnout, the celebration became a biannual spring and fall tradition, honoring 6th Streets original name, Pecan Street. In the past, the event has attracted more than 300,000 people, generating an economic impact around $43 million in 2010.</p><br>
<h2>National Register of Historic Places listings</h2><br>
<p>The Hotel Julien Dubuque is a hotel located in downtown Dubuque, Iowa at Second and Main streets. The hotel currently has 133 guest rooms, Caroline&#39;s restaurant, the Riverboat Lounge, the Potosa Spa, a pool and fitness center, and large banquet facilities. The interior redesign converted the existing 168 guest rooms into 133 luxury rooms and suites and restored the historic lobby and grand ballroom, while at the same time adding modern systems and amenities like a geothermal heating and cooling system, a reflective roof, a swimming pool and fitness facility. It was included as a contributing property in the Old Main Street Historic District in 1983 as the Julien Motor Inn.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of the Hotel Julien Dubuque can be traced back to 1839, when the first lodging establishment was built at Second and Main streets. At first, the hotel was called the Waples House. The Waples House was known for fine dining and extravagant furnishings. In 1854 the hotel was renamed the Julien House. The hotel was enlarged and refurbished. It&#39;s believed that Abraham Lincoln stayed at the Julien House when he traveled to Galena, Illinois to attend to legal matters there. During the late 1800s, the hotel became a focal point of downtown Dubuque.</p><br>
<p>In 1913, the Julien House was destroyed by a fire - very little was left standing by the time the fire was over. Construction on the present building began soon after, and was completed in 1915.</p><br>
<p>During the time that Al Capone was the leader of the mob in Chicago, he reportedly owned the Julien. Capone supposedly had a fondness for Dubuque, and when he had trouble in Chicago Capone would come to Dubuque and use the Julien Inn as a retreat and hideout. Local lore says that he had an underground garage in the area in order to hide his personal cars so that he could better disguise his presence in the city.</p><br>
<p>Another famous guest of the Julien was Sylvester Stallone. Stallone stayed at the Julien Inn during the filming of the movie F.I.S.T.</p><br>
<p>Louis Pfohl eventually purchased the hotel, and remodeled the building. He was responsible for many of the features found in the hotel, such as the mirrored staircase leading from the lobby to the second floor.</p><br>
<p>The Julien Inn is currently owned by the Fischer Companies - a company that owns a number of buildings in Dubuque. In 2007, the Fischer Companies began further renovation, intending to restore the building&#39;s exterior to its original appearance, plus renovating the interior of the hotel. As part of the renovation, the hotel also received a new name: Hotel Julien Dubuque. The renovation is now complete and the hotel reopened in Summer 2009.</p><br>
<p>Forest Hill is a neighborhood in the city of Newark in Essex County, in the USA state of New Jersey. It is a pre-World War II neighborhood in the North Ward. It is bounded on the west by Branch Brook Park, on the south by Bloomfield Avenue , and on the east by both Summer and Mt. Prospect Avenues, the neighborhood of Broadway. The neighborhood&#39;s ZIP Code is 07104.</p><br>
<p>Forest Hill is located on a ridge between the Passaic River and the valley of the Branch Brook. It was first developed by Elias Heller, who owned a file factory in North Newark, on the Belleville border. Heller Parkway is named in his honor. From the 1870s to the 1920s, generations of wealthy Newarkers built hundreds of stately homes in the area in various styles, including Beaux-Arts, Victorian, Colonial Revival, Gothic Revival, and Spanish Revival. One such house is the Wright-Clark house, a Tudor style manor built during the early 1900s. Along with their mansions, the wealthy of Forest Hill also developed scores of social and literary clubs. Other than the homes, landmarks include the old Tiffany factory and the Ballantine Gate. The North End branch and the Branch Brook Park branch of the Newark Public Library serve the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is well preserved and maintained, and few of the historic homes have been torn down, renovated into apartments, or transferred to institutional use. The northern part of the neighborhood is part of an official historic district, containing a marker that was erected by The Newark Preservation and Landmarks Committee, a non-profit organization dedicated to the care of Newark&#39;s past history. During special times throughout the year, there are special tours made possible by several organizations such as the New Jersey Historical Society where homeowners open their homes to visitors, and the Mount Pleasant Cemetery Association. Working alongside the neighborhood, the Forest Hill Community Association provides assistance by offering a chance to volunteer, and hosting various events of engagement. This area also includes a diverse community, standing out for its calm environment.</p><br>
<p>The Sydenham House located on "The Old Road to Bloomfield" (east of Branch Brook Park) and built in 1712 is the city&#39;s oldest private residence. It was later expanded in the early 19th Century. D.J. and Elizabeth Henderson restored it in the 1950s.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Bloomfield Avenue, Davenport Avenue and Branch Brook Park stations of the Newark Light Rail system are all located nearby.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Notable current and former residents of Forest Hill include:</p><br>
<p>Robert Altenkirch, President of the University of Alabama in Huntsville.</p><br>
<p>Peter Ballantine (1791–1883), founder of Newark&#39;s Patterson & Ballantine Brewing Company in 1840.</p><br>
<p>Dean Faiello (born 1959), non-doctor convicted of killing a patient during a medical procedure.</p><br>
<p>Maria Jeritza (1887–1982), opera singer.</p><br>
<p>Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933), artist and designer best known for his work in stained glass.</p><br>
<p>William Hayes Ward (1835–1916) clergyman, editor of The Independent, a leading Abolitionist newspaper.</p><br>
<p>Fort Brown  was a military post of the United States Army in Cameron County, Texas, during the latter half of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century. Established in 1846, it was the first US Army military outpost of the recently annexed state. Confederate Army troops stationed there saw action during the American Civil War. In the early 20th century, it was garrisoned in relation to military activity over border conflicts with Mexico. Surviving elements of the fort were designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<h2>Early years</h2><br>
<p>In 1846, Captain Joseph K. Mansfield directed the construction of a star-shaped earthwork for 800 men called "Fort Texas" on the northern side of the Rio Grande, "by the order from General Taylor to command the city of Matamoros" south of the river.</p><br>
<p>The next year, the fort was besieged during the opening of the Mexican–American War. During the Siege of Fort Texas, two Americans were killed, including Major Jacob Brown and George Oakes Stevens (of Vermont) of the 2nd Dragoons. In honor of the fallen major, General Taylor renamed the post as Fort Brown. In 1849, the city of Brownsville, Texas, was established not far from the fort&#39;s grounds, after the United States had acquired Texas following the war.</p><br>
<h2>Cortina</h2><br>
<p>While in command at the fort, Major Samuel P. Heintzelman coordinated with John Salmon Ford in the Cortina Troubles, culminating in the Battle of Rio Grande City in 1859.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>In 1861, Confederate Colonel John "Rip" Ford occupied the fort, with a garrison there until 1863. The Confederate forces were finally driven out by Union forces under General Nathaniel P. Banks, who had his troops camped in tents erected at the fort site. This Union occupation ended in 1864, when Confederate forces under General James E. Slaughter and Colonel Ford took control of the area. They held the post until the end of the war, when it was occupied again by Union forces under General Egbert Brown.</p><br>
<h2>Postbellum</h2><br>
<p>From 1867–1869, a permanent US Army fort was constructed under the supervision of Captain William A. Wainwright.</p><br>
<p>In 1882, Dr. William Crawford Gorgas was assigned to the hospital at Fort Brown during the height of a yellow fever outbreak. Using Fort Brown as his base of operations, Gorgas studied the disease for several years. He was sent to Cuba during the Spanish–American War.</p><br>
<h2>Brownsville raid</h2><br>
<p>A unit of African-American soldiers, known as Buffalo Soldiers, was stationed at Fort Brown. White residents of town resented the presence of the Black soldiers, and tensions rose. On August 13 and 14, 1906, unknown persons "raided" Brownsville, indiscriminately shooting bystanders. They wounded one White man and killed White resident Frank Natus. The townspeople of Brownsville quickly blamed the Black soldiers for the incident. The Army investigated the matter and concluded that the Black soldiers were guilty, although their supervising officers supported them and said they had been at the fort. William H. Taft, then President Theodore Roosevelt&#39;s Secretary of War and soon to be elected as president, ordered all 168 Black soldiers to be discharged "without honor".</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the Army conducted another investigation, led by Lt. Col. William Baker. The government concluded that the Black soldiers had not been responsible. They were given posthumous honorable discharges, but by then, only two of the original 168 men were still alive. The two men received compensation, but the Army did not restore the dead soldiers&#39; pensions, to which their descendants would have been entitled.</p><br>
<p>Since the late 20th century, historians have speculated about the incident. The History Channels program Historys Mysteries attributed the incident to Brownsville residents shooting up the town with rifles using the same caliber ammunition (.45-70 ?) as the soldiers and then framing the soldiers. (Academic press books about the Brownsville Raid include The Brownsville Raid (1970/1992) and The Senator and the Sharecroppers Son: Exoneration of the Brownsville Soldiers (1997) by John D. Weaver, and Racial Borders: Black Soldiers along the Rio Grande (2010) by James Leiker.)</p><br>
<h2>First airplane to be attacked by hostile fire</h2><br>
<p>On April 20, 1915, USA Signal Corps Officers Byron Q. Jones and Thomas Millings flew a Martin T over the fort to spot movements of Mexican Revolutionary leader Francisco "Pancho" Villa. The plane reached an altitude of 2,600 ft. and was up for 20 minutes. It did not cross the border into Mexico, although it was fired upon by machine guns and small arms. These frequent patrols lasted for 6 weeks and were used more effectively in 1916.</p><br>
<h2>124th Cavalry</h2><br>
<p>The troopers stationed at Fort Brown from 1929–45 were from the 124th Cavalry Regiment, Texas National Guard, which was one of the last mounted cavalry regiments in the United States Army. On November 18, 1940, they went into active military training. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the division served with distinction, dismounted, in the China Burma India Theater, where a member of the unit from Fort Brown earned the theater&#39;s only Medal of Honor (awarded to Jack L. Knight, commanding F Troop).</p><br>
<h2>United States Army Air Forces use</h2><br>
<p>During World War II, Fort Brown was transferred to the USAAF Training Command on July 7, 1943. The USAAF Gulf Coast Training Center (later Central Flying Training Command) used the fort for flexible gunnery training until the fort was inactivated on February 1, 1946.</p><br>
<h2>Decommission</h2><br>
<p>On February 1, 1946, Fort Brown was decommissioned and turned over to the Army Corps of Engineers on April 25, 1946. It was acquired by the City of Brownsville and Texas Southmost College in 1948.</p><br>
<p>Three areas that were once part of the post were designated a discontiguous National Historic Landmark District in 1960, in recognition of its historic importance. These include earthworks built in 1846, a cavalry barracks built in 1848, and a collection of buildings erected mainly between 1868 and 1870, including a hospital, morgue, barracks, commissary, colonels house, and officers quarters.</p><br>
<p>The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 authorized the addition of Fort Brown (166 acres) to Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>Sun Studio is a recording studio opened by rock-and-roll pioneer Sam Phillips at 706 Union Avenue in Memphis, Tennessee, on January 3, 1950. It was originally called Memphis Recording Service, sharing the same building with the Sun Records label business. The Sun label that was housed within the studio played a large role in Elvis Presley&#39;s early career.</p><br>
<p>Reputedly the first rock and roll single, Jackie Brenston and his Delta Cats "Rocket 88" was recorded there in 1951 with song composer Ike Turner on keyboards, leading the studio to claim status as the birthplace of rock & roll. Blues and R&B artists like Howlin Wolf, Junior Parker, Little Milton, B.B. King, James Cotton, Rufus Thomas, and Rosco Gordon recorded there in the early 1950s.</p><br>
<p>Rock and roll, country, and rockabilly artists, including Johnny Cash, Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison, Charlie Feathers, Ray Harris, Warren Smith, Charlie Rich, and Jerry Lee Lewis, recorded there throughout the mid-to-late 1950s until the studio outgrew its Union Avenue location. Sam Phillips opened the larger Sam C. Phillips Recording Studio, better known as Phillips Recording, in 1959 to replace the older facility. Since Phillips had invested in the Holiday Inn Hotel chain earlier, he also recorded artists starting in 1963 on the label Holiday Inn Records for Kemmons Wilson. In 1957, Bill Justis recorded his Grammy Hall of Fame song "Raunchy" for Sam Phillips and worked as a musical director at Sun Records.</p><br>
<p>In 1969, Sam Phillips sold the label to Shelby Singleton, and there was no recording-related or label-related activity again in the building until the September 1985 Class of &#39;55 recording sessions with Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Johnny Cash, produced by Chips Moman.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, the original building housing the Sun Records label and Memphis Recording Service was reopened by Gary Hardy as "Sun Studio," a recording label and tourist attraction that has attracted many notable artists, such as U2, Def Leppard, Bonnie Raitt, and Ringo Starr.</p><br>
<h2>Beginnings and Phillips Records</h2><br>
<p>In January 1950, WREC radio engineer Sam Phillips opened the Memphis Recording Service at 706 Union Avenue with his assistant and long-time friend, Marion Keisker. Phillips had dreamed of opening his own recording studio since he was a young man, and now that it was a reality he was overjoyed. However, getting the company off the ground was not an easy task. To create revenue at the beginning, Phillips would record conventions, weddings, choirs, and even funerals. He also held an open door policy, allowing anybody to walk in and, for a small fee, record their own record. Phillips&#39; slogan for his studio was "We Record Anything, Anywhere, Anytime." The purpose of the label was to record "negro artists of the South" who wanted to make a recording but had no place to do so. The label failed to make an impact and folded after just one release; "Boogie in the Park" by Joe Hill Louis, which sold less than 400 copies.</p><br>
<h3>"Rocket 88"</h3><br>
<p>After the failure of Phillips Records, Phillips began working closely with other record labels such as Chess Records and Modern Records, providing demo recordings for them and recording master tapes for their artists. It was during this time that Phillips recorded what many consider to be the first rock and roll song, "Rocket 88" by Jackie Brenston and his Delta Cats, who were actually Ike Turner and his Kings of Rhythm. Some biographers have suggested that it was Phillips inventive creativeness that led to the songs unique sound, but others put it down to the fact that the amplifier used on the record was broken, leading to a "fuzzy" sound. The Sun Studio tour lends credence to the latter, with the tour guide saying the amplifier was stuffed with wads of newspaper.</p><br>
<h2>Sun Records</h2><br>
<p>In early 1952, Phillips once again launched his own record label, this time calling it Sun Records. During his first year he recorded several artists who would go on to have successful careers. Among them were B.B. King, Joe Hill Louis, Rufus Thomas, and Howlin&#39; Wolf. Despite the number of singers who recorded there, Phillips found it increasingly difficult to keep profits up. He reportedly drove over 60,000 miles in one year to promote his artists with radio stations and distributors. To keep costs down, he would pay his artists three percent royalties instead of the usual five percent that was more common at the time. Phillips turned to alcohol when it looked like his label would once again fail, and he was put into a mental hospital at one point, reportedly getting electric shock treatment.</p><br>
<p>Rufus Thomas "Bearcat", a recording that was similar to "Hound Dog", was the first real hit for Sun in 1953. Although the song was the labels first hit, a copyright-infringement suit ensued and nearly bankrupted Phillips record label. Despite this, Phillips was able to keep his business afloat by recording several other acts, including the Prisonaires, a black quartet who were given permission to leave prison in June 1953 to record their single, "Just Walkin in the Rain", later a hit for Johnnie Ray in 1956. The song was a big enough hit that the local newspaper took an interest in the story of its recording. A few biographers have said that this article, printed in the Memphis Press-Scimitar on July 15, influenced Elvis Presley to seek out Sun to record a demo record.</p><br>
<h2>Elvis Presley</h2><br>
<p>In August 1953, fresh out of his high school graduation the previous June, the 18½ year old Presley walked into the offices of Sun. He aimed to pay for a few minutes of studio time to record a two-sided acetate disc: "My Happiness" and "Thats When Your Heartaches Begin". He would later claim he intended the record as a gift for his mother, or was merely interested in what he "sounded like", though there was a much cheaper, amateur record-making service at a nearby general store. Biographer Peter Guralnick argues that he chose Sun in the hope of being discovered. Asked by receptionist Marion Keisker what kind of singer he was, Presley responded, "I sing all kinds." When she pressed him on whom he sounded like, he repeatedly answered, "I dont sound like nobody." After he recorded, Phillips asked Keisker to note down the young mans name, which she did along with her own commentary: "Good ballad singer. Hold." Presley cut a second acetate in January 1954—"Ill Never Stand In Your Way" and "It Wouldn&#39;t Be the Same Without You"—but again nothing came of it.</p><br>
<p>Phillips, meanwhile, was always on the lookout for someone who could bring the sound of the black musicians on whom Sun focused to a broader audience. As Keisker reported, "Over and over I remember Sam saying, If I could find a white man who had the Negro sound and the Negro feel, I could make a billion dollars." In June, he acquired a demo recording of a ballad, "Without You", that he thought might suit the teenaged singer. Presley came by the studio, but was unable to do it justice. Despite this, Phillips asked Presley to sing as many numbers as he knew. He was sufficiently affected by what he heard to invite two local musicians, guitarist Winfield "Scotty" Moore and upright bass player Bill Black, to work something up with Presley for a recording session.</p><br>
<p>The session, held the evening of July 5, proved entirely unfruitful until late in the night. As they were about to give up and go home, Presley took his guitar and launched into a 1946 blues number, Arthur Crudups "Thats All Right". Moore recalled, "All of a sudden, Elvis just started singing this song, jumping around and acting the fool, and then Bill picked up his bass, and he started acting the fool, too, and I started playing with them. Sam, I think, had the door to the control booth open... he stuck his head out and said, What are you doing? And we said, We dont know. Well, back up, he said, try to find a place to start, and do it again." Phillips quickly began taping; this was the sound he had been looking for. Three days later, popular Memphis DJ Dewey Phillips played "Thats All Right" on his Red, Hot, and Blue show. Listeners began phoning in, eager to find out who the singer was. The interest was such that Phillips played the record repeatedly during the last two hours of his show. Interviewing Presley on-air, Phillips asked him what high school he attended in order to clarify his color for the many callers who had assumed he was black. During the next few days the trio recorded a bluegrass number, Bill Monroes "Blue Moon of Kentucky", again in a distinctive style and employing a jury-rigged echo effect that Sam Phillips dubbed "slapback". A single was pressed with "Thats All Right" on the A side and "Blue Moon of Kentucky" on the reverse.</p><br>
<h3>Selling Presley</h3><br>
<p>Within months Phillips saw his label expand significantly owing to the number of Presley records sold. Radio stations and record stores all over the South were eager to play them, and as Presleys profile grew over the next year, Phillips realized Sun was not large enough to break him throughout the United States. In February 1955, Phillips met with Colonel Tom Parker, a man known for his hustling skills as well as his managerial ones. Parker persuaded Phillips that Presley needed a national record label to help him further his career, and after several more months Phillips agreed to sell Presleys contract. He told Parker that he would require a $5,000 down-payment by November 15, as an advance on a $35,000 buy out fee. At the time, $35,000 was an unheard of amount of money for a recording artist&#39;s contract, especially one who had yet to prove himself on the national stage.</p><br>
<p>Although Presley didnt want to leave Sun, according to Sun engineer Jack Clement, Phillips sold his contract because he needed the money to settle debts and pay off costs still associated with Rufus Thomass "Bearcat" copyright-infringement suit. Phillips, however, insisted that he only offered Presley&#39;s contract for $35,000 because he believed it would put off any other record label from purchasing it. Regardless, Presley signed a record contract with RCA Victor in November 1955, and left Sun. Phillips used some of the money to further advance the careers of his other artists, by now featuring Johnny Cash, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Roy Orbison.</p><br>
<h3>Million Dollar Quartet</h3><br>
<p>On December 4, 1956 an impromptu jam session among Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash took place at Sun Studio.</p><br>
<p>The jam session seems to have happened by pure chance. Perkins, who by this time had already met success with "Blue Suede Shoes", had come into the studio that day, accompanied by his brothers Clayton and Jay and by drummer W.S. Holland, their aim being to cut some new material, including a revamped version of an old blues song, "Matchbox". Phillips, who wished to try to fatten this sparse rockabilly instrumentation, had brought in his latest acquisition, singer and piano man extraordinaire Jerry Lee Lewis, still unknown outside Memphis, to play piano on the Perkins session.</p><br>
<p>Sometime in the early afternoon, Presley dropped in to pay a casual visit accompanied by a girlfriend, Marilyn Evans. He was, at the time, the biggest name in show business, having hit the top of the singles charts five times, and topping the album charts twice in the preceding 12-month period. Less than four months earlier, he had appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show, pulling an unheard-of 83% of the television audience, which was estimated at 55 million, the largest in history up to that time.</p><br>
<p>After chatting with Philips in the control room, Presley listened to the playback of Perkins’ session, which he pronounced to be good. Then he went out into the studio and some time later the jam session began. At some point during the session, Sun artist Johnny Cash, who had recently enjoyed a few hits on the country charts, popped in. (Cash wrote in his autobiography Cash that he had been first to arrive at the Sun Studio that day, wanting to listen in on the Perkins recording session.) "Cowboy" Jack Clement was engineering that day and remembers saying to himself "I think Id be remiss not to record this" and so he did. After jamming through a number of songs using someone elses guitar for an hour, Elvis and girlfriend Evans slipped out as Jerry Lee pounded away on the piano. Cash claims in Cash that "no one wanted to follow Jerry Lee, not even Elvis."</p><br>
<p>During the session Phillips spotted an opportunity for some publicity and called a local newspaper, the Memphis Press-Scimitar. Bob Johnson, the newspaper&#39;s entertainment editor, came over to the studio accompanied by a UPI representative named Leo Soroca and a photographer.</p><br>
<p>The following day, an article, written by Johnson about the session, was published in the Memphis Press-Scimitar under the title "Million Dollar Quartet". The article contained the now-famous photograph of Presley seated at the piano surrounded by Lewis, Perkins and Cash (the uncropped version of the photo also includes Evans, shown seated atop the piano). This photo proves Cash was there, but the audio doesn&#39;t provide substantial proof he joined in on the session.</p><br>
<h2>Decline</h2><br>
<p>For several years after Presley left Sun, Phillips had success with other acts. Sun Studio became known as a place that nurtured talent and then encouraged it to expand with bigger labels. In 1959, Phillips moved Sun Studio to larger premises at 639 Madison Avenue. By the mid 1960s, Phillips had lost interest in recording and had instead branched out into radio. He opened several radio stations, beginning in the late 1950s, and Sun lost its reputation as an innovative recording studio. In 1968, Sun released its last record. In 1969, Mercury Records label producer Shelby Singleton &ndash; noted for producing the Ray Stevens hit "Ahab the Arab" in 1962, and later Jeannie C. Rileys 1968 hit single "Harper Valley PTA" on his Nashville-based Plantation Records label &ndash; purchased the Sun label from Phillips. Singleton merged his operations into Sun International Corporation, which re-released and re-packaged compilations of Sun&#39;s early artists in the early 1970s. Singleton moved the firm to Nashville, and sold the building to a plumbing company, who eventually sold it to an auto parts store, which used the original recording studio for inventory storage.</p><br>
<p>Since, Sun Records Studio has been used as a setting for the film biopics Walk the Line, Great Balls of Fire, Mystery Train and Elvis.</p><br>
<h2>Re-opening</h2><br>
<p>In 1987, ten years after Presley died, Sun Studio at 706 Union Avenue was converted back into a recording studio, and soon became a tourist attraction for Presley fans and music lovers in general. The studio was also used by several well known acts to record, including U2, Def Leppard, John Mellencamp, the Bogus Bros. and Chris Isaak & Silvertone to name a few. In 2003 it was officially recognized as a National Historic Landmark tourist attraction.</p><br>
<p>In May 2009, Canadian blues artist JW-Jones recorded with blues legend Hubert Sumlin, Larry Taylor and Richard Innes at the studio. In July 2009, John Mellencamp recorded nine songs for his album No Better Than This at the studio. In 2011, Chris Isaak released "Beyond the Sun," a collection of songs recorded at Sun Studio, most of which are cover versions of songs originally released on Sun Records.</p><br>
<p>Sun Studio regularly releases studio session podcasts on YouTube and on Public Television. Sun Studio announced that PBS affiliate stations would be showing a 30-minute series of Sun Studio Sessions starting in January 2010.</p><br>
<p>Gracie Mansion  is the official residence of the mayor of New York City. Built in 1799, it is located in Carl Schurz Park, at East End Avenue and 88th Street in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan. The federal-style mansion overlooks Hell Gate in the East River and consists of the original two-story house and an annex built in 1966. The original house is a New York City designated landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The house&#39;s site was previously occupied by Belview Mansion, built in 1770 for local merchant Jacob Walton and destroyed during the American Revolutionary War. In 1799, Archibald Gracie built a new house on the same site, which he used as his country home until 1823. The family of merchant Joseph Foulke used the house from 1823 to 1857, and the family of builder Noah Wheaton used it from 1857 to 1896, when the municipal government made its grounds part of Carl Schurz Park. During the early 20th century, the mansion was used as public restrooms, an ice cream stand, and classrooms. Gracie Mansion housed the Museum of the City of New York from 1924 to 1936, and it was a historic house museum until 1942, when it became a mayoral residence. Since then, each mayor except for Michael Bloomberg has lived at Gracie Mansion at some point during their tenure; most mayors redecorated the house upon taking office. A reception wing, named for New York City first lady Susan Wagner, was completed in 1966. Further major renovations took place in 1983–1984 and in 2002.</p><br>
<p>The facade is composed of clapboard panels with shutters. The original mansions first floor includes parlors, a dining room, a kitchen, and a library; the annex also includes a ballroom and reception rooms. The second floor has been traditionally used as bedrooms, while the basements contain offices. The mansions upkeep is partially overseen by the Gracie Mansion Conservancy, although the city government continues to own it. In addition to governmental business and special events, Gracie Mansion hosts public tours. Over the years, the house has been the subject of commentary, and it has also received accolades and has been depicted in numerous media works.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>Gracie Mansion, also known as Archibald Gracie Mansion, is located in Carl Schurz Park (at East End Avenue and 88th Street) in the Yorkville neighborhood of Manhattan in New York City. The mansion faces northeast toward Hell Gate, a channel in the East River. By the early 21st century, it was the only remaining country estate in Yorkville. Gracie Mansion sits atop Carl Schurz Park&#39;s highest point.</p><br>
<h3>Previous site usage</h3><br>
<p>The Europeans established their first settlements in modern-day New York City in the 17th century. From that point until the end of the 19th century, only six men owned the site. The first European owner of Gracie Mansions site was Sybout Claessan, who received either 30 acre or 106 acre from the Dutch West India Company in 1646. Claessans land, which includes Carl Schurz Park, The site was alternately known as Horen Hook, Harris&#39; Hook,</p><br>
<p>Jacob Walton, a merchant from what is now Flatbush in Brooklyn, obtained 11 acre around Hoorn&#39;s Hook and built a house, Belview Mansion, on the site in 1770. He moved into the house with his wife Polly Cruger. The Waltons were forced to leave the house in February 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, which was completed in April 1776. The house was severely damaged by cannonball fire on September 8 British troops controlled the site until 1783.</p><br>
<p>The Waltons never went back to Belview; their four children did not receive the land until 1791. The brick tunnel ran north from the mansions basement and then turned east toward the river. It is not known why the tunnel was built, but one newspaper said the tunnel could have been used as an escape route during the American Revolution or as a secret lovers entrance.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<h3>Gracie occupancy</h3><br>
<p>The merchant Archibald Gracie, at the time one of New York Citys richest men, bought Waltons land in two phases in December 1798 and January 1799. At the time, the Gracies city residence was a house that they rented from New York City mayor Richard Varick. Gracie built a new country estate on the Walton site in 1799, though there is disagreement over whether Gracie destroyed or reused the remains of Belview Mansion. In either case, Gracie removed the Revolutionary War-era earthworks and landscaped the gardens. Gracies mansion was abutted to the west by the house of banker Nathaniel Prime, Other houses along the East River included those of the Rhinelander family, Alexander Hamilton, John Jacob Astor, and Isaac Chauncey, which have long since been demolished. Gracie Mansion, at the time, was accessible only via the East River and was several miles from the developed parts of Lower Manhattan. There was a dock and a stone stable just south of the house.</p><br>
<p>In 1801, Gracie hosted a meeting of New York Federalists at the mansion to raise funds for the establishment of the New York Evening Post, which eventually became the New York Post. During the citys 1803 yellow fever epidemic, the houses isolated position allowed Gracie to avoid infected people in the city. Although the house originally faced southeast, it was expanded in 1804 to face northeast toward Hell Gate. The mansion was valued at $5,200 by 1809. Cannons were installed during the War of 1812 to defend the house&#39;s elevated site, and the house itself may have served as a military post.</p><br>
<p>The house entertained up to fifty guests at a time. The Riker, Rhinelander, and Schermerhorn families were also guests, as were the poet Thomas Moore, USA Army general Winfield Scott, and New York governor DeWitt Clinton. Irving may have written part of his novel Astoria while at the house, and he wrote in 1813 that "I cannot tell you how sweet and delightful I found this retreat, pure air, agreeable scenery and profound quiet".</p><br>
<p>Gracie continued to maintain a residence in Lower Manhattan; he bought a new city residence at 1 State Street in 1805 and moved to another house at 15 State Street in 1813. Although Gracie&#39;s firm lost more than $1 million during the War of 1812, he used the house as his country home until 1823. King placed the mansion for sale in April 1823,</p><br>
<h3>Foulke use</h3><br>
<p>The same year as Gracies firm was dissolved, the house was sold to Joseph Foulke, a merchant who had gained his wealth from trading largely in Central America and the Caribbean. Foulke paid $20,500 for the house and about 11 acre of land, which became known as Foulkes Point. The Foulkes added a fireplace mantel in the parlor but are not known to have made any other modifications. When Foulke died in 1852, the mansion and estate were passed to his seven children, and the land was subsequently divided.</p><br>
<h3>Wheaton use</h3><br>
<p>Foulkes family sold the house in 1857 to a builder named Noah Wheaton, By then, many of the estates on the East River were being replaced with industrial development. Wheaton added a two-story brick stable north of the mansion, built a kitchen in the mansion itself, and added gas lighting. One of the Wheatons guests wrote that they used to swim at Gracie&#39;s old mansion, where "there was comparatively deep water on the North side".</p><br>
<p>Wheaton declared bankruptcy in 1859, and the house went into foreclosure two years later, although the family was allowed to remain there. The Great Western Insurance Company, who had foreclosed on the house, resold it to Wheaton in 1870. The 1870 census describes Wheaton as living in the house with his wife, their three daughters, and two servants; by then, his affluent neighbors had moved toward the middle of Manhattan. Wheatons daughter Alice Hermione Wheaton Quackenbush and her husband Lambert S. Quackenbush lived in the mansion for five years in the 1870s; the Quackenbushes two oldest children, Amalie and Daniel, were also born in the mansion.</p><br>
<p>Wheaton took out several mortgages on the house and frequently encountered business troubles. His entire family may have left the house for a short time in the 1870s during one such business failure. Wheaton established a business on Broadway in 1878, but the business is not listed in an 1879 directory. In directories for subsequent years, listings for Wheaton mention only that he lived at Gracie Mansion, although he is recorded as being a "merchant" in 1882 and 1883. The house continued to be affected by Wheaton&#39;s business failures until his youngest daughter, Jane, married the lawyer Hamlin Babcock in 1884. Babcock moved into the house and remained there until 1896.</p><br>
<h2>Parks Department takeover</h2><br>
<p>The New York City government took over the land northeast of 86th Street and East End Avenue in 1891, converting it into what would later become Carl Schurz Park. The house itself was not acquired by the city until 1896, when the city government added it to Carl Schurz Park. According to Susan Danilow, who directed the Gracie Mansion Conservancy in the 2000s, the city government took over the mansion because the taxes had not been paid. The mansion served various functions as part of the park, including an ice cream stand, storage rooms, classrooms, and as a public toilet where, for five cents, people could use the house&#39;s bathrooms.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, the mansion was outfitted with steam heat; at the time, the house was being used as a clubhouse for girls&#39; clubs. The porch began to sag, while the paint was peeling. The house was in such disrepair that local residents wanted the mansion demolished, although a group led by Mrs. Graeme Elliot advocated for its preservation.</p><br>
<h3>Museum of the City of New York use</h3><br>
<p>The Patriotic New Yorkers—led by the writer May King Van Rensselaer, one of Gracie&#39;s descendants—had been contemplating taking over the mansion and opening an American history museum there in 1920. King Van Rensselaer and 20 other upper-class women wanted the museum to depict "the guests who had been entertained there, in the costumes of the beginning of 1800". By 1923, the Museum of the City of New York (MCNY), led by Henry Collins Brown, also wanted to take over the house.</p><br>
<p>Ultimately, the city and state governments gave the MCNY control over the mansion; As part of the agreement, the city government maintained the house, and the citys park commissioners were also permitted to rent it to civic groups for meetings. The MCNY furnished Gracie Mansion with objects gifted or loaned by other institutions. The MCNY opened within the mansion in November 1924 with exhibits spread across two floors. Following further restoration, Gracie Mansion formally opened to the public as the MCNYs exhibit space in March 1927, although the museum was already planning a new building. When the MCNY occupied the house, the ground floor was arranged as a reception room, music room, and dining room. Three of the second-floor rooms were open to the public: a bedroom, a theatrical history room, and a drawing room, the last of which was dedicated to May King Van Rensselaer in 1927. The New York Times wrote in the late 1920s that the house&#39;s presence "helps to sustain the old-fashioned atmosphere" of the surrounding blocks, where apartments were quickly being built.</p><br>
<p>The mansion had 130,000 visitors within a year of its rededication. After the United States Department of War set off explosives in Hell Gate to dredge it, the houses ceiling partially collapsed in June 1928, and the house was closed for repairs. The ceiling could not be repaired while blasting continued, but the secretary of war denied that the building had sustained structural damage. In 1929, the city authorized $12,000 in bonds to repair the mansion and add a fence. When the MCNYs new building on Fifth Avenue was completed in 1931, the museum moved almost all staff to the new structure. The MCNY moved out of the mansion completely in August 1932, as the museum&#39;s director said that it had outgrown the house.</p><br>
<h3>Historic house museum use</h3><br>
<p>A renovation of the house commenced in September 1934. Park commissioner Robert Moses had hired Aymar Embury II to design a new porch and redesign the interior, in advance of the house&#39;s conversion into a historic house museum. Works Progress Administration (WPA) workers added new window sills, roof, clapboard, porch, and heating and lighting systems. None of the original furniture remained, but several organizations agreed to lend furniture to the house, and the Colonial Dames of America redecorated a room. The MCNY gave some musical instruments; the Metropolitan Museum of Art provided 10 paintings and 19 pieces of furniture, and lawyer Francis Patrick Garvan lent 61 pieces of furnishings.</p><br>
<p>The renovation was completed in April 1936. The house attracted relatively few visitors, as the only nearby public transportation was the 86th Street Crosstown Line, a trolley (and later bus) line. A reporter for the New York Herald Tribune wrote in 1940 that the house "cannot hide from modern visitors its lack of running water and adequate heat" despite the ornate decorations.</p><br>
<p>Early plans for the East River Drive (now FDR Drive) called for a double-deck section of the parkway to be built straight through the mansions lawn. At the urging of Manhattan borough president Stanley M. Isaacs, this segment was changed to a tunnel in 1938. The tunnels design was intended to preserve the slope of the hill between the mansion and the waterfront, as well as the views from the mansion. Even so, the parkway effectively cut off the mansion from the waterfront. Work on a double-deck section of tunnel, which traveled within 20 yd of Gracie Mansion, began in February 1940, and the tunnel was finished that June. During the construction of the tunnel, many of the mansion&#39;s artifacts had to be placed in storage. Members of the public suggested converting the house for other purposes, including a nightclub or a tea room.</p><br>
<h2>Use as mayor&#39;s residence</h2><br>
<p>Robert Moses had first proposed acquiring an official New York City mayoral residence in 1935. At the time, the citys mayors typically lived in their own houses after they were elected; the only indication that a building served as a mayors residence was a special streetlight outside the home. In 1936, Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia rejected the idea of acquiring the Charles M. Schwab House as a mayoral residence. In June 1941, Moses received a letter offering to furnish Gracie Mansion as a historic house museum. Moses opposed this proposal and instead suggested this site as a mayoral residence to La Guardia, to which the latter eventually agreed. Moses, in a November 1941 letter to La Guardia, predicted it would cost $25,000 to rebuild the mansion for the mayor.</p><br>
<h3>Conversion and La Guardia use</h3><br>
<p>A plan to convert Gracie Mansion into New York Citys mayoral residence was drafted in December 1941, This made Gracie Mansion one of a few official mayoral residences in the USA To convince La Guardia, Moses proposed closing the houses restrooms and evicting Carl Schurz Parks caretaker from the second floor. Henry Stern, who served as the citys park commissioner in the late 20th century, said that Mosess proposal was "a great idea, with great foresight", because it placed the mansion under the purview of the citys park department. Conversely, the Citizens Union of New York opposed the plan because it would be inconvenient for city officials and future mayors to travel there from outer boroughs. Another opponent objected to the closure of the historic house museum.</p><br>
<p>Three museums agreed to lend furnishings for the house, The renovation involved up to 300 workers at once, and the project was completed on May 21. The La Guardia family moved into the mansion on May 27, 1942, when the mayor himself was out of town. La Guardia preferred to call the residence "Gracie Farm", as he wanted to downplay the house&#39;s grandeur.</p><br>
<p>The La Guardia family lived on the second floor. Due to a lack of money and wartime constraints, the La Guardias rarely hosted guests at the mansion. Those they did included George II of Greece (the first monarch to meet with a mayor at the mansion), Cuban president Fulgencio Batista, Czechoslovak president Edvard Beneš, and USA General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower. After moving into Gracie Mansion, La Guardia used it as a "summer city hall". In mid-1942, there were proposals to melt down the mansions iron fence for the World War II effort, although Moses claimed the fence had no salvage value and was essential for security. The businessman Walter Hoving claimed in 1943 that the city could save $100,000 by giving up the mansion and the WNYC radio station, to which Moses claimed that NYC Parks was entirely responsible for the mansions upkeep and that the city did not subsidize the mayor&#39;s residence at all. The La Guardias moved to Riverdale, Bronx, after La Guardia left office at the end of 1945.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<h4>O&#39;Dwyer and Impellitteri use</h4><br>
<p>When William ODwyer was elected in 1945, he initially said he would not relocate from his Brooklyn residence. ODwyer reversed his previous decision after determining that the mansion offered more privacy than his own house. Kitty ODwyer died less than a year after moving in. ODwyer and his wife left the mansion after he resigned in August 1950 to become the USA ambassador to Mexico.</p><br>
<p>New York City Council president Vincent R. Impellitteri became the citys acting mayor at the beginning of September 1950, and he and his wife Betty moved in shortly after. Betty Impellitteri said she would not redecorate or refurnish the house; the family also kept their old apartment on 16th Street. Even though Impellitteri had been appointed to a four-month term and could not live in the mansion if he lost that years special mayoral election, he decided to use the mansion to receive official visitors. Over the next several years, few people were invited to the house. Impellitteri, who would serve as mayor until 1953, recalled that he did not host any guests overnight, and a New Yorker columnist said that the mansions gates were often closed and that the lights were frequently off. During Impellitteris tenure, an Israeli artist&#39;s oil painting and a portrait of his wife were added to the mansion.</p><br>
<h4>Wagner use, development of annex</h4><br>
<p>Robert F. Wagner Jr. was elected in 1953, and he and his family moved into the house at the end of January 1954 from their nearby apartment on 86th Street. The facade was repainted, and some of the interior rooms were refurnished; Other artifacts, including paintings, tables, and chests, remained in place. The mayors wife Susan asked city workers to seal up the elevators so their young sons, Duncan and Bob, would not play with them. In the summer, the Wagner family spent time at their summer home in Islip, New York. The houses kitchen was upgraded in 1957 with cabinets, an oven, a refrigerator, and other appliances. Over the years, visiting world leaders donated other objects for the mansion.</p><br>
<p>In contrast to their predecessors, the Wagners hosted many guests at the mansion. The mansions food costs averaged $2,000 a month by 1960; this prompted NYC Parks commissioner Newbold Morris to reduce the mansions food budget to $14 a day. One of Wagner&#39;s opponents in the 1961 New York City mayoral election claimed that the Wagners were illegally overspending at the mansion, while another opponent vowed to turn it into a museum.</p><br>
<p>The Committee to Preserve Gracie Mansion as New York&#39;s White House, formed in 1963, sought to raise $250,000 to expand and renovate Gracie Mansion. The wing was to be used for meetings and receptions.</p><br>
<p>Groundbreaking for the wing took place in May 1965, and the city&#39;s Art Commission approved plans for the annex the next month. Jeannette Becker Lenygon, who had helped redecorate the Blair House and White House, was hired to select furnishings. Wagner was remarried to Barbara Cavanagh in July 1965. The family moved out of the mansion that September; Cavanagh had never moved in, as Wagner was to leave office at the end of the year. For the rest of his term, Wagner used the house only for official events. By that October, the annex was to cost $800,000, of which about $660,000 had been raised.</p><br>
<h4>Lindsay and Beame use</h4><br>
<p>When John Lindsay was elected as mayor in November 1965, he offered to pay to repaint the original mansion; Morris said that NYC Parks would pay for repainting. In either case, the annex was not complete at the end of the year, and the house could not be repainted until the annex was finished. The family, with their four children, moved to Gracie Mansion in mid-March, ten weeks after Lindsay took office. The interior spaces were again redecorated in advance of the familys move, and some broken furnishings were repaired. The city government spent $20,000 to install sprinklers after city officials declared that the house was a fire hazard. A wooden stockade fence was installed behind the houses wrought-iron fence in June. Mary Lindsay did not wish to host public events in the main mansion, aside from meetings that she organized herself, as she wished to confine all other events to the new annex.</p><br>
<p>The expansion, which ultimately cost $800,000, was dedicated on September 27, 1966. A garden with tall hedges had been planted next to the annex by 1967, further screening the mayors family from passersby. That year, NYC Parks banned active recreational activities next to the house, and the original furnaces were replaced. The attic served as a playroom, and NYC Parks workers built a treehouse for the Lindsays children. During the first four years of her husbands eight-year tenure as mayor, she oversaw the redecoration of the mansions interior spaces.</p><br>
<p>After Abraham Beame was elected to succeed Lindsay in 1973, the house was renovated in January 1974 with a $40,000 allocation from the city. The Beames friend Joan Haber, an interior designer, helped redecorate the house. Two other bedrooms were used by the Beames grandchildren during their visits to the mansion. During the first several weeks of his term, Beame continued to live at his house in Belle Harbor, Queens, and he and his wife Mary moved into Gracie Mansion at the end of February. During the Beames occupancy, the mansion hosted guests such as Japanese emperor Hirohito and actress Gloria Swanson, and it also held events such as a United States Bicentennial celebration. After Ed Koch defeated Beame in 1977, the Beames bought an apartment nearby. Mary Beame asked if they could stay in the house briefly after Koch was inaugurated on January 1, 1978, but Abraham Beame chose to move out just before Kochs inauguration.</p><br>
<h4>Koch use and expansion</h4><br>
<p>When Koch began moving into the mansion at the end of 1977, he ordered new furniture and brought some clothes from his Greenwich Village apartment. Koch originally preferred to stay at his apartment on weekends, saying the mansion was "nice, but its like a hotel". He decided to live at Gracie Mansion full-time only after he attended a family dinner there. Several paintings were added to the mansion during Kochs first few years, including contemporary art from the Met and from modern art galleries, as well as ten 20th-century paintings lent by New York University. These works of art were added at the urging of New York City cultural affairs commissioner Henry Geldzahler. In addition, when the New York state government began conducting a renewable-energy study in 1979, Koch invited the state government to install equipment at the mansion. The state government dismissed the offer because it was not cost-efficient.</p><br>
<p>Koch was the first unmarried mayor to move into the mansion; Koch also hosted other visitors including USA president Ronald Reagan, Archbishop of New York John O&#39;Connor, Catholic saint Mother Teresa, and filmmaker Woody Allen. the tours attracted up to 20,000 people annually. The rest of the mansion needed upgrades as well; the main house and reception area were linked only by a kitchen, and the offices in the basement were too small.</p><br>
<p>Koch announced a renovation of the mansion in 1981 and formed the Gracie Mansion Conservancy the next year to oversee renovations of the mansion. Koch convinced Joan K. Davidson to serve as the conservancy&#39;s first chairperson. Albert Hadley and Mark Hampton were hired as interior decorators, Hadley resigned from the project due to disagreements and was replaced by Marilynn Johnson, a Metropolitan Museum of Art curator. Work on the project began in March 1983 with the replacement of the porch. The project included new furnishings, landscaping, a new porch, expanded staff rooms, HVAC and electrical upgrades, as well as a gourmet kitchen. Workers upgraded the mansion while restoring it to as close to its original design as possible; they used dozens of paint and wallpaper samples to restore the original appearance. Numerous designers were hired to decorate the interiors.</p><br>
<p>The renovation was finished in November 1984. Over the next year, Koch hosted over 23,000 guests at the mansion, more than he had invited in any other year. Koch also hired the horticulturalist Maureen Hackett to restore and maintain the grounds in 1987. After Koch suffered a stroke the same year, he had a temporary office in Gracie Mansion while he recovered. Gracie Mansion was one of the founding members of the Historic House Trust, established at the mansion in 1989. Koch moved to an apartment on Fifth Avenue after losing reelection later that year. By then, the house hosted 22,000 guests annually. The city&#39;s commissioner of investigation released a report in 1991, finding that Gracie Mansion had not had an official budget for at least a decade.</p><br>
<h4>Dinkins and Giuliani use</h4><br>
<p>When David Dinkins won the 1989 New York City mayoral election, his wife Joyce Dinkins indicated that she would not change the decor, as Koch had already renovated the mansion extensively. The Dinkinses did contemplate adding a swing set and other features for their grandchildren. The Dinkins family relocated to the mansion in mid-January 1990, Joyce Dinkins read to first-grade students at the mansion once a week, and the Dinkinses hosted "Kids Day at Gracie Mansion" every summer. The Dinkinses highest-profile guest at the mansion was the future South African president Nelson Mandela. During Dinkinss mayoralty, there was controversy over a $11,500 headboard that Dinkins had ordered for the mansion; he and his allies eventually agreed to reimburse the city and the Gracie Mansion Conservancy for the cost of the headboard. City inspectors discovered high lead levels in the mansion&#39;s water supply in 1992.</p><br>
<p>After Rudy Giuliani defeated Dinkins in 1993, the houses curator was suspended after inappropriately firing two of the houses staff. Giuliani, his wife Donna Hanover, and their young children Andrew and Caroline moved into the mansion at the beginning of 1994. Despite the large number of events that the Giulianis hosted at the mansion, they still wanted their children to live regular lives there. Hanover became the chairwoman of the Gracie Mansion Conservancy The New York City Police Department considered replacing the mansions security system at the end of 1994, and police commissioner William Bratton spent $150,000 the next year on a new security system. In addition, the chimneys and other furnishings were repaired; and Tiffany & Co. gifted china to the mansion. Because of the houses small size, the Giulianis hosted few overnight guests, limiting stays to close friends and family. During the late 1990s, there were still public tours of the mansion, which displayed 700 antique items.</p><br>
<p>When Giuliani and Hanover separated in 2001, Hanover sued to prevent Giulianis girlfriend Judith Nathan from moving into the mansion. The lawsuit mainly concerned whether the mansion should be considered a private residence rather than a private space. A judge ruled in Hanovers favor, saying the familys children had a right to move around the house without being interrupted by visitors. By then, Giuliani privately noted that the mansions interiors were starting to decay, while other observers such as Ed Koch said that the exterior was also rundown. The mansion also had several rat infestations. Hanover refused to vacate the mansion, so Giuliani had moved out by July 2001, months before he was to leave office. The New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, upheld Nathan&#39;s ban from the mansion that October.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<h4>Bloomberg tenure</h4><br>
<p>When Michael Bloomberg was elected in 2001, his mayoral transition team began discussing a renovation of the mansion. Bloombergs partner Diana Taylor wanted them to live there, but he refused, saying it would be a large expense for taxpayers that was not justified. The exterior was repainted in April 2002 with $85,000 from an anonymous donor, A major restoration of the mansion began that May. The renovation was designed by Bloombergs personal decorator Jamie Drake and involved replacing mechanical systems, reinforcing the internal structure, and repainting and restoring historical elements. The renovation had been largely funded with $5.5 million in private donations.</p><br>
<p>Under Bloombergs tenure as mayor, the house was open to the public on Tuesdays, and visitors were permitted to see the upstairs rooms. The Gracie Mansion Conservancy received $1 million in donations from January to September 2003 (an increase from $42,200 in all of 2001), and the house itself saw 23,000 visitors during 2003. The house hosted official state visits, luncheons, dinners, receptions, awards ceremonies, and cultural events. Under Bloombergs mayoralty, the house hosted such varied overnight guests as Miami mayor Manuel A. Diaz, South African archbishop Desmond Tutu, and Norwegian Crown Prince Haakon. Gracie Mansion continued to be known colloquially as the "mayor&#39;s house", and it retained a full-time staff of 12.</p><br>
<p>By 2011, annual visitation had increased to 40,000. A Daily News investigation that year found that 16 active violations of city building codes had been recorded at the house, including a crumbling wall. A renovation of the kitchen began in June 2012 and was completed the next year for $1.25 million. Bloomberg, who served as mayor until 2013, never lived in the house, and he recommended that his successors not live in the house. Toward the end of Bloomberg&#39;s term, the mansion was cleaned and repaired for his successor.</p><br>
<h4>De Blasio use</h4><br>
<p>Major candidates in the 2013 election indicated that they wished to live in Gracie Mansion. De Blasios family began moving into the mansion in June 2014; it took almost two months. The de Blasio family furnished the second-floor living space with about $65,000 or $70,000 of furniture donated by West Elm. Another $80,000 went toward security, cleaning, maintenance, and relocation of belongings. The first floor was used for official events and city business. At the NYPDs request, a tall fence was installed around the mansion in 2014 to protect de Blasios family. The de Blasio administration estimated that it would host over 50 events a year at the mansion, and his wife Chirlane McCray hosted several exhibits at the mansion during de Blasios mayoralty. By 2015, the roof was leaking and needed to undergo asbestos abatement.</p><br>
<h4>Adams use</h4><br>
<p>Eric Adams and his family lived in Gracie Mansion after he won the 2021 election. Following his victory, Adams implied that he might split his time between Gracie Mansion and his home in Brooklyn, then said that he would bring only his mattress to the mansion without redecorating it. The house continued to be rented out for events such as weddings.</p><br>
<p>On September 26, 2024, federal agents executed a search warrant at Gracie Mansion, a few hours before Adams was indicted on federal charges of bribery, fraud, and illicit solicitation of foreign campaign donations, following an extensive criminal investigation into Adams and his associates. Adams&#39;s phone was seized by the FBI during the search.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Archibald Gracie built the two-story wooden house in the Federal style. The design of the structure has been variously attributed to Pierre Charles LEnfant, the French engineer responsible for the LEnfant Plan in Washington, D.C. Ezra Weeks, a prominent builder; or John McComb Jr., who had designed Hamilton Grange and New York City Hall. A 1959 news article described the house as originally measuring 50 by across. Ellen Stern wrote that "calling this clapboard country house a mansion—rather than a manor house or villa—might seem an urban affectation when applied to so quaint a dwelling", but that its early occupants definitely considered it a mansion.</p><br>
<p>There is a separate two-story wing next to the mansion, designed by Mott B. Schmidt; the wing is designed in a neo-Georgian style and has its own entrance. The new wing is known as the Susan B. Wagner Wing.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>The original mansion&#39;s facade initially consisted of cream-colored clapboard panels and white trim, and there were green shutters flanking each window. Repainted several times over the years, the siding was painted ocher in 2002, and the trim and shutters were repainted in their original colors. The windows on the first and second floors are stacked atop each other in a manner that appears symmetrical. The eastern and western elevations of the facade are slightly asymmetrical because the house was expanded to the north in 1811. In addition, part of the basement is visible due to the slope of the site.</p><br>
<p>There is a porch around the southern and eastern elevations and on part of the northern elevation. The semicircular fanlight is decorated with rosettes, while the sidelights are separated by pilasters. The doorway, attributed to L&#39;Enfant, was originally on the north or south elevation but was placed on the east side of the house by 1811. The top of the main roof is surmounted by a Chinese Chippendale–style balustrade. There are four chimneys on the roof: two larger chimneys above the original 1799 structure and two smaller ones above the 1811 expansion.</p><br>
<p>The original houses southern elevation is placed behind the porch and contains four windows on each story. There is a narrow gap between the original house and the wing to the southwest. The western elevation of the original house was built with four windows on either story, but one of the first-story windows was replaced with a connection to the wing. On the northern elevation, the original house is designed symmetrically around a protruding central bay with rectangular windows on the first and second floors and a lunette window at the attic. The section of the porch to the left (east) of this bay is open-air, while the section of the porch to the right (west) is enclosed with glass. The northern elevation of the wing has its own entrance from the mansions driveway and has a clapboard facade. The entrance has a portico with hand-carved columns, which was based on a similar portico designed for the Tichnor family in Boston. Except for the portico columns, which are designed in the composite order, the wing largely duplicates the design details of the original house.</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<h4>Main house</h4><br>
<p>The rooms of the main house retain the same layout as in 1811, although the designs of each room have been changed over the years. Before 1942, the house was used as a museum and had a restroom in the basement, a museum curators office on the first floor, and a park supervisors apartment on the second floor. Following the 1980s renovation, the mansion was redecorated with 19th-century chandeliers, mirrors, and other artifacts. The mansion includes around 14 rooms and eight bathrooms. In general, the rooms have wall dados, fireplaces, plain cornices, and high ceilings. The fireplaces in the house largely have classical designs with a mantelpiece shelf supported by tapering vertical pilasters.</p><br>
<h4>=First floor=</h4><br>
<p>As built, an entrance hall ran through the original house&#39;s first floor from north to south, flanked by two rooms on either side.</p><br>
<p>There is a foyer with a black-and-white trompe-lœil pattern on the floor, which in turn surrounds a compass rose. This foyer, designed by Stephen Gemberling, dates to an 1980s renovation and is based on the original design of the foyers floor. Although the trompe-l&#39;œil pattern was reportedly cheaper than importing real marble, Koch claimed it would have been cheaper to just install real marble. The foyer also has a fireplace with decorations that resemble those at the main entrance. A Sheraton settee was installed in the foyer during the renovation.</p><br>
<p>To the right of the main foyer is the parlor, also known as the living room or drawing room,</p><br>
<p>To the left of the foyer, at the rear of the house, is a dining room Bloombergs daughters Georgina and Emma also etched their names into the window. Both the library and the dining room date from the houses 1799 completion.</p><br>
<h4>=Other floors=</h4><br>
<p>A curving staircase, at the rear of the house, leads from the first floor to the second. As built, the second floor had three bedrooms accessed by a central hallway, as well as two smaller rooms that were probably used for storage. The second floor was refitted with four bedrooms (each with a private bathroom), as well as a sitting room, in 1942. One of the bedrooms is a guest bedroom, while the others are used by the mayors family. The master bedroom and the adjacent sitting room occupy the former site of the park supervisors apartment. When Koch was mayor, a secure bunker was installed in the bathroom adjoining the mayor&#39;s bedroom.</p><br>
<p>The basement originally contained the kitchen and may have also included staff quarters. The 1942 renovation added four servants rooms, an office for the parks caretaker, and an office for the mayor&#39;s bodyguards to the basement. There is a gift shop in the basement.</p><br>
<h4>Annex</h4><br>
<p>When the Wagner wing was built, it nearly doubled the mansions size. The annex could seat up to 150 people at once. including an 1820s Duncan Phyfe table built for Joseph Bonaparte. Although the annex was finished in 1966, it was not connected to the main house for over two decades, as Susan Wagner had wanted the two structures to be separate. A hall, sometimes known as the hyphen, was constructed between the main house and annex in the 1980s, requiring the relocation of the mansions original main stairway.</p><br>
<p>The wing is accessed by a hallway with a marble floor and a 17.25 ft ceiling. or across and has a coved ceiling measuring 18 ft high. The walls of the ballroom were originally decorated with French windows and gray-blue walls, topped by a frieze with garlands and fruit bowls. There are also 12 neoclassical columns throughout the ballroom. A chandelier from 1783 hangs from the ceiling, and eight lighting sconces are mounted onto the walls. A portrait of Susan Wagner, painted by Willy Pogany, was also displayed in the ballroom. The ballrooms Adam style mantel was salvaged from the James Watson House, the residence of Archibald Gracies brother-in-law Moses Rogers.</p><br>
<p>Flanking the ballroom are two smaller rooms: a dining room and a reception room. There is also a serving pantry on the ballroom level. The dining rooms mantel was salvaged from a house on Greenwich Street. Mark Hampton redecorated the ballroom, dining room, and reception room in the Federal style during the 1980s. The basement was constructed with a conference room, an office for the mayor, and another office for the mayors secretary. The conference room was designed to fit at least 30 people, and press offices also occupied the basement.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>The mansion has served as the official New York City mayor&#39;s residence since 1942. Visiting official guests may also sleep at the house, and numerous mayors have invited their political allies to the mansion. The house has also been used for ceremonies and governmental business.</p><br>
<p>Gracie Mansion remained valuable into the early 21st century. A real-estate expert estimated in 2008 that the house could be auctioned for $250 million, and Vanity Fair magazine wrote in 2014 that the house and site were worth an estimated $125 million to $200 million. The New York Times reported in the late 1970s that the mansion also increased the value of mayors pensions even after they retired. For instance, although Abraham Beame earned $60,000 a year just before he left office in 1977, he also received a $30,000 benefit from using the mansion, making his total pension $90,000 a year. Due to its role, the mansion has sometimes been described as the "Peoples House"</p><br>
<h3>Maintenance</h3><br>
<p>The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation has owned the house since before it became a mayoral residence. The mansions upkeep is partially overseen by the Gracie Mansion Conservancy, a public–private partnership formed in 1981 under Ed Kochs mayoralty. The conservancy was originally established to restore the mansion and preserve it. By the 1990s, the conservancy also employed a curator and assistant curator for the mansion. The Gracie Mansion Conservancy oversees educational programs and events at the mansion. In 2012, it was recorded as having a $1.7 million annual operating budget, most of which was paid by the city. The house is a member of the Historic House Trust.</p><br>
<h3>Public access</h3><br>
<p>Although the mansion was closed for public tours between 1942 and 1980, it has often been open to the public since then, even when in use as a mayoral residence., the Gracie Mansion Conservancy provides tours of the mansion one day a week; the tours cover the first floor. The de Blasio family suspended tours of the house between 2014 and 2016. Visitors were banned from taking photographs except in the Wagner Ballroom. The public has also been invited to the mansion for special occasions such as annual trick-or-treating events.</p><br>
<p>Besides official business, Gracie Mansion has hosted other types of events over the years. Its first fashion show took place in 1956. The mansion also has hosted exhibitions during its time as a mayoral residence. This included a 2015 exhibit of artifacts relating to minority groups; a 2017 exhibit with World War II–era artifacts; a 2019 exhibit of women&#39;s paintings; and a 2020 exhibit on social justice. The mansion has also been used as a meeting place for clubs such as the Gracie Book Club.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<h3>Reception</h3><br>
<p>One writer from 1913 said that "there are evidences of its old-time grandeur, when it entertained some of the brightest men of the day in this country". Another writer said in 1922 that "no resident of such a mansion could wish to travel or to forsake its cheerful rooms always suggestive of home", while The Atlanta Constitution called it "a worthy example of the solidity and beauty of early New York architecture" in 1927. A writer for The Baltimore Sun said in 1931 that "its neat and happy present brings to mind certain outlines of its domestic past". A decade later, a writer for The Christian Science Monitor described the site "a most fitting frame for the office of the citys Chief Executive". The Christian Science Monitor writer contrasted its preservation with the planned demolition of Castle Clinton, which had been approved shortly beforehand. The New York Herald Tribune wrote that no other mayoral residence in the citys history was "more gracious or larger than Gracie Mansion".</p><br>
<p>When the Wagner annex was proposed in 1965, New York Times architecture critic Ada Louise Huxtable described it as "notable for its scholarly and appropriate good taste", compared to the original plan for the houses expansion, which she compared to a suburban garage. After the annex was completed, Huxtable said that the annex "is worth every penny that the city did not spend", in part because of the craftsmanship and furnishings of the interiors, as well as the fact that the exterior neither directly replicated nor clashed with the facade of the original mansion. The Christian Science Monitor wrote in 1966 that the annex was "of architectural and interior distinction, which reflects warmth and a welcoming sense of hospitality". In 2002, architectural historian Christopher Gray wrote that the annexs interior was "oddly oversized" and that the details in the annex&#39;s central hall, although appropriate for the 1960s, "looks like applique".</p><br>
<p>The New York Daily News wrote in 1973 that the mansion was "a dignified dowager of early American architecture" that remained a prominent presence on the East River. When the mansions renovation was announced in 1982, a writer for the New York Daily News praised the mansions "18th century farmhouse look, its human scale, its graceful rooms, its embracing porch and unbelievable (for Manhattan) setting" but criticized plans to convert the house into a cultural showcase. After the renovation, a reporter for the Sun Sentinel wrote in 1985 that "it is the interior decoration that has literally transformed the house" and that the previous mayors&#39; decorations were "dowdy". Referring to Gracie Mansion and City Hall in 1987, a Times writer said: "For all its rush to change, New York, contrarily, installs its seat of power in two of the oldest, most elegant buildings with the most classical lines in New York." A reviewer for The Herald-Times wrote in 2017 that "Gracie Mansion abounds in architectural and decorative interest", citing the floor and furniture of the foyer as being of particular interest.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation</h3><br>
<p>Gracie Mansion was one of 6,500 buildings in the USA that were photographed as part of the Historic American Buildings Survey between 1933 and 1942. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission considered designating Gracie Mansion as a city landmark in March 1966, and the mansion was designated as such later the same year. following advocacy from Beame and LPC chairwoman Beverly Moss Spatt.</p><br>
<h3>Media and popular culture</h3><br>
<p>The mansion was depicted in a 1952 exhibit of historic homes presented by the New-York Historical Society (N-YHS), and was the subject of another N-YHS exhibition in 1981. At the end of 1966, after the mansions Wagner wing was completed, the wing and the original mansion were shown in a half-hour WCBS-TV broadcast. During Gracie Mansions 1980s renovation, N-YHS curator Mary Black was commissioned to write a book about the mansion&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>The mansion has also been the setting of, or filming location for, several fictional media works. The original footage from the TV show The Yule Log was filmed at Gracie Mansion in 1966 and shown on WPIX-TV (channel 11). Several scenes in the 1974 film The Taking of Pelham One Two Three depicted the houses exterior and interior, although the interior scenes were filmed at Wave Hill in the Bronx, where one room was redesigned to resemble Gracie Mansion. The movies Ghostbusters II (1989) and City Hall (1996) were set at Gracie Mansion, as was the 1997 novel The Puttermesser Papers by Cynthia Ozick. The mansion and its surroundings were used extensively as a setting in Linda Fairsteins 2010 novel Hell Gate; Fairstein said she had set the novel at the mansion because "it had a history and physical beauty that fascinated me".</p><br>
<h3>Claims of being haunted</h3><br>
<p>De Blasios wife Chirlane McCray has claimed the mansion is haunted, alleging that there are sounds of doors opening and closing by themselves, and creaks from the wooden floorboard. She also claimed to have heard the whispers from the daughter of Archibald Gracie. During an interview with CBS, Eric Adams also claimed the mansion is haunted; he has repeated McCrays claims. Adams also claimed to have seen objects moving around in the mansion. The alleged haunting is attributed as a possible reason as to why Adams has hesitated to stay in the mansion for long periods of time, but others have claimed that it was an excuse for Adams not to move.</p><br>
<p>Kleinhans Music Hall is a concert venue located on Symphony Circle in Buffalo, New York. The hall "is renowned for its acoustical excellence and graceful architecture." Kleinhans is currently the home of the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, a regular venue for the Buffalo Chamber Music Society, and is rented out for other performing groups and local events. The building was designed by father-and-son team Eliel Saarinen and Eero Saarinen, with help from local architects F. J. and W. A. Kidd, Stanley McCandless as lighting consultant, and Charles C. Potwin as acoustical adviser. Kleinhans has two performance spaces, as well as additional rooms for rehearsals or private events. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1989 for its architecture, 49 years after its completion.</p><br>
<h2>Performance spaces</h2><br>
<p>Kleinhans Music Hall offers two spaces for performances, the main auditorium and the Mary Seaton Room. The main auditorium seats 2,441 (it originally accommodated 2839 seats but underwent renovations in 2015 reducing the capacity), and showcases the hall&#39;s parabolic ceiling and acoustically-informed design. The shape of the hall is such that audience members in the back rows of the balcony will have as clear and instantaneous of an auditory experience as the people in the front rows of the ground level. Charles C. Potwin employed a 1:1.3 ratio in the design of the auditorium to achieve the most ideal acoustic. While the design of the main auditorium is less conducive to reverberation, it aims to create a more intimate experience by drawing the audience in. The austere color palette and simple lines seen in the layout also serve to direct the audience to the music without distraction of ornate decoration.</p><br>
<p>The Mary Seaton Room is the smaller of the two performance venues, seating up to 700 for a concert, and is well suited for chamber ensembles.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Kleinhans Music Hall was named by Edward L. Kleinhans in honor of his wife, Mary Seaton Kleinhans, and his mother, Mary Livingston Kleinhans. The Kleinhans family owned a successful men&#39;s clothing company in Buffalo at the turn of the 20th century. Upon their deaths, three months apart in 1934, they left their entire estate of around $1 million to the Community Foundation for Greater Buffalo with the request that the funds go to the development of a music hall.</p><br>
<p>Upon its completion in 1940, the cost of construction reached $1.5 million, and included funds from President Roosevelt&#39;s Public Works Administration in addition to the $1 million from the Kleinhans estate. Kleinhans Music Hall opened on October 12, 1940 with an inaugural concert by the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra under Maestro Franco Autori.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, the seats of the auditorium were updated, and storage rooms were converted into an archive room to serve as an educational feature of the building&#39;s philanthropic history and architectural significance.</p><br>
<h3>Notable events</h3><br>
<p>On September 8, 1964, Robert F. Kennedy, who at the time was the Democratic candidate to become a United States Senator from New York, gave a speech at Kleinhans in front of a crowd of 6,000 people.</p><br>
<p>On November 9, 1967, four months after the city was rocked by the Buffalo riot, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gave a speech at Kleinhans titled "The Future of Integration." In this speech, he proclaimed, "We are moving toward the day when we will judge a man by his character and ability instead of by the color of his skin."</p><br>
<p>The Bradbury Building is an architectural landmark in downtown Los Angeles, California, United States. Built in 1893, the five-story office building is best known for its extraordinary skylit atrium of access walkways, stairs and elevators, and their ornate ironwork. The building was commissioned by Los Angeles gold-mining millionaire Lewis L. Bradbury and constructed by architect George Wyman from the original design by Sumner Hunt. It appears in numerous works of fiction and has been the site of many movie and television shoots and music videos.</p><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1977, one of only four office buildings in Los Angeles to be so honored. It was also designated a landmark by the Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Commission and is the city&#39;s oldest landmarked building.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>Lewis L. Bradbury, Sr. (November 6, 1823 – July 15, 1892) was a 19th century millionaire who made his fortune in mining and real estate but Bradbury dismissed Hunts plans as inadequate to the grand building he wanted. He then hired George Wyman, one of Hunts draftsmen, to do the design. Bradbury supposedly felt that Wyman understood his own vision of the building better than Hunt did, but there is no concrete evidence that Wyman changed Hunt&#39;s design, which has raised some controversy about who should be considered to be the architect of the building. Wyman had no formal education as an architect, and was working for Hunt for $5 a week at the time.</p><br>
<p>The building opened in 1893, some months after Bradbury&#39;s death in 1892,</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>The building has operated as an office building for most of its history. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1977. It was purchased by developer and champion of downtown restoration Ira Yellin in the early 1980s, who invested $7 million in restoration, preservation and seismic retrofitting between 1989 and 1991. As part of the restoration, a storage area at the south end of the building was converted to a new rear-entrance portico, connecting the building more directly to Biddy Mason Park and the adjacent Broadway Spring Center parking garage. The building&#39;s lighting system was also redesigned, bringing in alabaster wall sconces from Spain.</p><br>
<p>Since 1996, the building has served as the headquarters for the Los Angeles Police Department&#39;s Internal Affairs division and other government agencies. The LAPD Board of Rights holds officer discipline hearings here, and within the force it is given the nickname "the Ovens", because officers see it as the place they "get burned." The LAPD has a 50-year lease on their space.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>The building was purchased for $6 million in 2003 by a Hong Kong investor, less than the $7 million Ira Yellin invested just to rehabilitate and seismically retrofit the structure after acquiring it in 1989, a reflection of Yellins commitment to downtown preservation and restoration. It was never listed for sale, only offered to a select group of potential buyers who would respect its legacy and retain its character. The building, according to Yellins widow Adele, at the time, was "in very good hands".</p><br>
<p>From 2001 to 2003 the Museum of Architecture and Design had its home there. In 2007, the Morono Kiang Gallery of Chinese art opened in the building.</p><br>
<p>Several of the offices are rented out to private concerns, including Red Line Tours. The retail spaces on the first floor currently house Ross Cutlery, where O. J. Simpson purchased a stiletto that figured in his murder trial, a Subway sandwich restaurant, a Blue Bottle Coffee shop, and a real estate sales office for loft conversions in other nearby historic buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building&#39;s undistinguished exterior facade of brown brick, sandstone and terracotta detailing was designed in the commercial vernacular Italian Renaissance Revival style current at the time. Its interior is its most notable part.</p><br>
<p>The narrow entrance lobby, with its low ceiling and minimal light "has the look of a Parisian alley of arched windows", and opens into a bright naturally lit great "awe-inspiring cathedral-like" center court. Robert Forster, star of the TV series Banyon that used the building for his office, described it as "one of the great interiors of L.A. Outside it doesnt look like much, but when you walk inside, suddenly youre back a hundred and twenty years."</p><br>
<p>The five-story central court features glazed and unglazed yellow and pink bricks, tiling, Italian marble, Mexican tile, decorative terracotta and polished wood, capped by a skylight that allows the court to be flooded with natural rather than artificial light, creating ever-changing shadows and accents during the day. At the time the building was completed, it featured the largest plate-glass windows in Los Angeles.</p><br>
<p>Open "bird-cage" elevators surrounded by wrought-iron grillwork go up to the fifth floor.</p><br>
<p>Geometric patterned staircases and wrought-iron and polished oak railings are used abundantly throughout. The wrought-iron was created in France and displayed at the 1893 Chicago World&#39;s Fair before being installed in the building. Freestanding mail-chutes also feature ironwork. The overall effect, according to a Los Angeles Times writer, is "a mesmerizing degree of symmetry and visual complexity".</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The building is a popular tourist attraction. It is open daily and staffed by a government worker who provides historical background on it. Casual visitors are only permitted up to the first landing. Brochures and tours are also available. It is close to three other downtown Los Angeles landmarks: the Grand Central Market, the Million Dollar Theater (across the street) and Angels Flight (two blocks away). Access is via the Los Angeles Metro Rail B and D lines at Civic Center/Grand Park station, three blocks distant.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Bradbury Building has been featured prominently as a setting in many films, television shows, and in literature—particularly in the science fiction genre. Most notably, the building is a setting in the 1982 science fiction film Blade Runner, for the character J. F. Sebastian&#39;s apartment, and the climactic rooftop scene.</p><br>
<p>The Bradbury Building appeared in the noir films The Unfaithful (1947), Shockproof (1949), D.O.A. (1950) and I, The Jury (1953) (the latter filmed in 3-D). M (1951), a remake of the 1931 German film, contains a long search sequence filmed in the building, and a notable shot through the roof&#39;s skylight. The five-story atrium also substituted for the interior of the seedy skid row hotel depicted in the climax of Good Neighbor Sam (1964).</p><br>
<p>The building is also featured in China Girl (1942), The White Cliffs of Dover (1944), Indestructible Man (1956), Caprice (1967), Murphy&#39;s Law (1986), ‘’Midnight Cabaret’’ (1990), The Dreamer of Oz (1990), Wolf (1994), Lethal Weapon 4 (1998), Pay It Forward (2000), What Women Want (2000), (500) Days of Summer (2009) and The Artist (2011).</p><br>
<p>Television series that featured the building include the 1964 The Outer Limits episode "Demon with a Glass Hand", and the 1962 Perry Mason episode "The Case of the Double-Entry Mind". During the season six episodes (1963–64) of the series 77 Sunset Strip, the Stuart "Stu" Bailey character had his office in the Bradbury. In Quantum Leap the building is seen carrying the name "Gotham Towers" in "Play It Again, Seymour", the last episode of the first season (1989). The building appeared in at least one episode of the television series Banyon (1972–73), where it was used as Robert Forsters office, City of Angels (1976) and Mission: Impossible (1966–73), as well as Ned and Chucks Apartment in Pushing Daisies, which debuted in 2007. The building was also the setting for a scene from the series FlashForward in the episode "Let No Man Put Asunder". In 2010 the building was transplanted to New York City for a two-part episode of CSI: NY. The Bradbury Building and a fake New York City subway entrance across the street were also used to represent the exterior of New Yorks High School of Performing Arts in the opening credits of the television series Fame. The building appears as itself in multiple episodes of the fourth season of Amazon Studios original series Bosch, in both exterior establishing shots and interior shots.</p><br>
<p>The Bradbury appeared in a 1979 music video for "Take Me Home" by Cher, in addition to music videos from the 1980s by Heart, Janet Jackson, Earth Wind and Fire, Phil Seymour and Genesis, and a Pontiac Pursuit commercial. Part of Janet Jacksons 1989 film short Janet Jacksons Rhythm Nation 1814 was filmed in the building as well. The interior appears in the music video for the Pointer Sisters 1980 song, "Hes So Shy". The Bradbury Building was prominently featured in Monicas 1998 single "The First Night" as well in Tony! Toni! Toné!s "Let&#39;s Get Down" music video. In 2016, the interiors were featured in the music video for "The Road" by Chinese musician Huang Zitao. The building was used in the music video for "Icy", a 2019 song by South Korean girl group Itzy.</p><br>
<p>The Bradbury has frequently appeared in popular literature. In the "Nathan Heller" series of detective novels by Max Allan Collins, Hellers A-1 Detective Agencys Los Angeles offices are housed in the Bradbury, as shown in the novel Angel in Black. In the Star Trek novel The Case of the Colonist&#39;s Corpse: A Sam Cogley Mystery, the protagonist works from the Bradbury Building four hundred years in the future. Other appearances occur in The Man With The Golden Torc by Simon R. Green, Angels Flight The Black Box, and "The Drop," by Michael Connelly, and the science-fiction multiple novel series The World of Tiers by Philip Jose Farmer.</p><br>
<p>DC Comics and Marvel Comics—the latter of which has offices in the real Bradbury Building—both published comic book series based on characters that work in the historic landmark. The building serves as the headquarters for the Marvel Comics team The Order, and in the DC Universe, the Human Target runs his private investigation agency from the building.</p><br>
<p>The building was used for the music video for "Say Something", a song released on January 25, 2018 by Justin Timberlake featuring Chris Stapleton.</p><br>
<p>The Bradbury Building was featured in "On Location", episode 172 of the podcast 99% Invisible.</p><br>
<p>The building interior was shown in the title sequence for the TV series The Ray Bradbury Theater, which aired from 1985 to 1992.</p><br>
<p>Watson Mill Bridge State Park is a 1,018 acre Georgia state park located near Comer and Carlton on the South Fork of the Broad River. The park is named for the Watson Mill Bridge the longest original-site covered bridge in Georgia, which spans 229 ft across the South Fork of the Broad River. The site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Watson Mill Covered Bridge and Mill Historic District. The bridge, built in 1885, is supported by a Town lattice truss system held together with wooden pegs also known as trunnels. Georgia once had over 200 covered bridges, but only 20 now remain. The park also offers a scenic nature trail and a new hiking/riding trail that winds through the thick forests and along the rivers edge.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>21 tent/trailer/RV sites</p><br>
<p>3 pioneer camping sites</p><br>
<p>Group shelter</p><br>
<p>3 picnic shelters</p><br>
<p>Boat rental</p><br>
<p>The Equitable Building is an office skyscraper located at 120 Broadway between Pine and Cedar streets in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan in New York City. The skyscraper was designed by Ernest R. Graham in the neoclassical style, with Peirce Anderson as the architect-in-charge. It is 555 ft tall, with 38 stories and 1.2 e6sqft of floor space. The building&#39;s articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and capital.</p><br>
<p>The Equitable Building replaced the Equitable Life Building, the previous headquarters of the Equitable Life Insurance Company, which burned down in 1912. Work on the Equitable Building started in 1913 and was completed in 1915. Upon opening, it was the largest office building in the world by floor area. The Equitable Building hosted a variety of tenants and, by the 1920s, was the most valuable building in New York City. The Equitable Life Insurance Company, the building&#39;s namesake, occupied a small portion of the building until it moved out during 1960. The owner, Silverstein Properties, purchased the Equitable Building in 1980 and has renovated it multiple times.</p><br>
<p>Upon its completion, the Equitable Building was controversial because of its lack of setbacks, which in turn does not allow sunlight to reach the surrounding ground. This contributed to the adoption of the first modern building and zoning restrictions on vertical structures in Manhattan, the 1916 Zoning Resolution. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978 and was designated a city landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1996. It is also a contributing property to the Wall Street Historic District, a NRHP district created in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The building occupies the entire block bounded by Broadway to the west, Cedar Street to the north, Nassau Street to the east, and Pine Street to the south. The dimensions of the block are irregular. The building has a frontage of approximately 167 ft on Broadway, 312 ft on Cedar Street, 152 ft on Nassau Street, and 304 ft on Pine Street. The plot is shaped like a trapezoid, with the Nassau Street and Broadway frontages being almost parallel. The plot covers about 48,000 -; The building is assigned its own ZIP Code, 10271; it was one of 41 buildings in Manhattan that had their own ZIP Codes.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous buildings and structures immediately adjacent to the Equitable Building. Zuccotti Park is located to the northwest, while 140 Broadway is to the north and 28 Liberty Street is to the northeast. Federal Hall National Memorial is to the southeast and 14 Wall Street and the American Surety Building are to the south. Across Broadway to the west and southwest are the Trinity and United States Realty Buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Equitable Building, an early skyscraper, was designed by Ernest R. Graham of D. H. Burnham & Company (later Graham, Anderson, Probst & White), with Peirce Anderson as the architect-in-charge. In contrast to the contemporary Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, Singer Building, and Woolworth Building, the Equitable Building was designed as a bulky mass, rather than a "slender, romantic tower". This was affected by the fact that the other three buildings were corporate symbols from renowned architects, while the Equitable Building was a speculative development whose designer had little experience in New York City. The ultimate design was distinct from corporate structures such as the Met Life Tower or restrained office buildings such as the Flatiron Building,</p><br>
<p>The articulation consists of three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column, namely a base, shaft, and capital. The exterior is inspired from Greek and Roman architecture. In total, it is 555 ft tall when the penthouse&#39;s center tower is included; a separate measurement of 545 ft is given when measured to the top of the other penthouses, and the height excluding any of the penthouses is 525 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Form</h3><br>
<p>Although the Equitable Building is 40 stories tall with 555 ft, this includes two stories in the building&#39;s penthouses as well as two "interior stories" that are not visible from the facade. and there are three basement levels. Originally, the structure was proposed as a 42-story skyscraper, but this was reduced to 36 effective stories to maximize elevator safety and speed, given the assumption that 50,000 people visited the building each day and that there were 48 elevators that could each serve 1,200 people an hour.</p><br>
<p>The Equitable Building has no setback from the street beyond the depth of the sidewalk. This is because Graham wanted the building to have the latest technological systems, such as elevators, heating, ventilation, and fireproofing, while also maximizing usable office space. Two light courts (recesses), one each to the east and west, bisect the facades above the seventh floor. As a result, the Equitable Building appears in the shape of the letter H when viewed from above. The design of the Equitable Building is similar to that of the now-demolished Hudson Terminal office buildings and the 49 Chambers building. The two-story penthouse is 30 ft tall; the penthouse roof is 20 ft tall, but the center tower rises another 10 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>The building&#39;s facade is made of brick, granite, and terracotta, Anderson designed the facade with a base, shaft, and capital, similar to the Broadway–Chambers Building by Cass Gilbert, but with facades on all sides. The building contains eighteen vertical window bays each on the Pine and Cedar Street facades, and seven bays each on the Broadway and Nassau Street facades, three on each wing of the "H". The window bays each consist of two windows on each floor, except the center bay on Broadway and Nassau Street, which includes three windows on the 5th through 7th floors.</p><br>
<p>The lowest four stories were made of granite, while the 5th through 7th stories have a facade of granite and terracotta. as well as an ornamented terracotta frieze at the fourth story, which is 12 ft wide. The remaining windows on the first floor are stainless-steel show windows, which illuminate the commercial spaces inside. Though most of the commercial space is accessed from the lobby, there is also a service entrance and a shop entrance from the Cedar Street side. The window openings on the second, third, fifth, and sixth floors are separated by vertical mullions and horizontal spandrel panels made of green terracotta. Flagpoles hang from the seventh story.</p><br>
<p>The 8th through 38th stories were made of light gray brick and matching terracotta trim. On the Broadway and Nassau Street facades, the light court divides the primary facades into two wings, each with three window bays. The portions of the facade facing these light courts are faced with brick. Medallions with cornices are located at the corners of the building at the 7th and 31st floors. There is no ornamentation on the 8th through 30th floors, while there are belt courses below the 31st and 32nd floors. The facade between the 32nd and 35th floors is composed of a colonnade with terracotta pilasters between each column of windows, topped by ornamented capitals. The colonnade terminates at the top of the 35th floor, where there is an elaborate cornice. Another belt course separates the 36th and 37th floors, and a cornice is located above the 38th floor.</p><br>
<p>The top of the building, composed of the penthouse, is faced with brick and terracotta. It contains pilasters similar to the lower sections of the building. The main penthouse, atop the center of the "H", has dimensions of 85 by. Penthouses are located atop the wings as well.</p><br>
<h3>Features</h3><br>
<p>Upon its completion, the Equitable Building was the largest office building in the world by total area. and each of the upper stories has 30,000 ft2 due to the H-shaped footprints. A fact sheet published at the time of the Equitable Building&#39;s completion estimated that it had approximately 5,000 windows and 10,000 doors.</p><br>
<h4>Structural features</h4><br>
<p>The foundations descended to 85 ft below ground level. The foundation is surrounded by a concrete cofferdam which measures 6 ft wide and is reinforced by steel rods. Within the foundation are eighty piers, each of made of concrete and steel. A retaining wall between Cedar and Pine Streets is used to reinforce two of the cellar levels for vaults. The superstructure weighs 32,500 ST. At the time of the Equitable Buildings construction, it was described as the worlds heaviest structure. There are 88 granite columns that rest on the piers within the foundation, and another 50 columns that rest atop the cofferdam.</p><br>
<h4>Interior</h4><br>
<p>The ground-floor lobby is composed of two perpendicular arcades, a west-east corridor from Broadway to Nassau Street and a north-south corridor from Pine to Cedar Streets. All four entrances contained bronze revolving doors. The ceiling is designed in patterns of octagons and squares. Also in the lobby are the elevators, which contain marble-and-bronze doors and are located in the central section of the "H". Banking spaces and storefronts are also located on the ground floor, accessible from the lobby. To the southeast and northwest, marble stairs with balustrades lead to the basements and second floor.</p><br>
<p>The first basement level has safe-deposit vaults designed by Frederick S. Holmes. At opening, half of the basement was occupied by the Cafe Savarin, a 1,000-seat eatery with three rooms fitted with bright blue tiled walls and floors.</p><br>
<p>On the upper floors, a staircase, restrooms, and utilities are clustered into the core of the "H". The light courts within the "H" ensured that all offices could receive natural light. Floors were arranged so that they could be divided into suites facing outward, so that all suites faced windows, though it was also possible for lessees to rent entire floors. Upon the buildings opening, Equitable also provided rest and recreation rooms for the buildings 2,000 female employees, making it the first large building to have a women&#39;s welfare department. Also in the building was the library of the New York Law Institute, which remains in the building.</p><br>
<p>The Equitable Building housed the 1,500-member Bankers Club on its top three floors when it opened. The club had five dining rooms, a lounge, reception rooms, and an open-air terrace. The club was highly frequented by notable financial figures and socialites in New York City, hosting politicians and leaders such as United Kingdom prime minister Winston Churchill, French president Charles de Gaulle, Soviet Union leader Nikita Khrushchev, and Queen of the United Kingdom Elizabeth II. It closed in 1979 after the club&#39;s lease expired.</p><br>
<h4>Mechanical features</h4><br>
<p>The operations of the Equitable Building were described as being akin to a small city. When the building opened, there was a power station 50 ft below ground level. It contained seven boilers with a combined output of 3,500 hp, which took up a space measuring 145 by. There was also an artificial ice plant. The power station originally burned oil, consuming 2.5 million barrels per year, but started using coal in 1934 due to a rise in fuel prices. At the time of completion, the Equitable Building was said to have more telephones than did all of Greece.</p><br>
<p>The building contains 50 elevators; the 48 elevators serving the above ground levels are clustered in six groups of eight, while an additional two elevators serve the basements. The Equitable Building previously contained as many as 62 elevators.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Context</h3><br>
<p>During the 19th century, life insurance firms were some of the first companies to build high-profile skyscrapers. The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States, founded by Henry Baldwin Hyde in 1859, had built the Equitable Life Building on 120 Broadway in 1870. The Equitable Life Building was the first office building to feature passenger elevators, and at a record 130 ft upon construction, was among the world&#39;s first skyscrapers. By the 1890s, the Equitable Life Building was architecturally outdated, and George B. Post prepared plans for a 40-story structure in 1897, which did not proceed.</p><br>
<p>In 1907, Daniel H. Burnhams company had proposed replacing the Equitable Life Building with a 33-story structure. At the time, both Burnham and Equitable publicly denied that a new home office was being planned. Burnhams firm filed plans for a 62-story building in 1908, to top the Singer Building and Metropolitan Life Tower. This new building would have had a 34-story base and a 28-story tower, being 909 ft tall, with 40 acre of floor area and 3,600 offices. Although bidding for the proposed structure began in December 1908, Equitable president Paul Morton publicly denied plans for a new structure. The plan was ultimately dropped, possibly due to opposition over the building&#39;s sheer bulk.</p><br>
<p>The Equitable Life Building was destroyed by a fire on January 9, 1912, which killed six people. Fire engines could not save the structure because the water from the engines had frozen in the cold weather. Given that the previous building had been worth very little, the land was actually worth more after the fire than beforehand.</p><br>
<h3>Planning and construction</h3><br>
<h4>Planning</h4><br>
<p>After the fire, Thompson–Starrett was hired to clear the site, and the plot was chosen as the location for Equitable&#39;s new headquarters building. Thompson–Starrett president Louis J. Horowitz approached businessman T. Coleman du Pont, who later recalled that du Pont was interested in the "idea of owning a gigantic building in New York". Frank M. Andrews—who also designed the Hotel McAlpin for du Pont—was involved in the project as well. Horowitz, Andrews, and du Pont were said to have bought the lot in August 1912, and finalized the sale that October for $13.5 million.</p><br>
<p>Du Pont forced Andrews from the project, apparently upon Horowitzs advice, and Andrews sued du Pont in July 1913, leading du Pont to pay Andrews $100,000 for his involvement. Horowitz then corresponded with Ernest Graham, the other major partner at D. H. Burnham & Company after Burnhams June 1912 death, who would become the architect of the new tower. Graham designed the structure as a bulky mass, wanting to maximize the amount of office space on the site rather than a corporate symbol. Grahams key concern was with the height of the elevators, and he discussed the issue with preeminent elevator engineer Charles E. Knox, who said that "the elevator service will determine the height of the building". This differed from Grahams previous commissions, where elevators were considered after the height of the building was specified. Knox ultimately recommended against building a 42-story structure, but recommended a 36-story edifice since that height could meet the client&#39;s safety and speed criteria.</p><br>
<p>Opposition to the building soon coalesced. One group of bankers planned to build a park on the site, a suggestion that Horowitz said "outranks, for nerve, anything of which I ever heard", and was dropped when Horowitz suggested that the group raise $13.5 million to buy out du Ponts ownership share. Equitable president William A. Day was appointed as chairman of the board of the building corporation. Thompson–Starrett was hired as the builder and Horowitz became the "owners representative".</p><br>
<h4>Construction</h4><br>
<p>Because of the high land cost, the developers wanted to erect the building as quickly as possible; at the time, buildings&#39; general contractors usually passed work down to subcontractors. To eliminate delays due to a lack of communication between subcontractors, the building corporation formed a "Method of Procedure" to coordinate all work on the building. Since there were no nearby material-storage areas, it was imperative that work be completed as quickly as possible. The start of work had already been held up by opposition to the proposed height and shape.</p><br>
<p>Excavation for the building started in June 1913. The cofferdam around the foundation was initially reinforced with timber cross-bracing until the steel frame underground had been sufficiently completed to support the cofferdam. During excavation, a cannonball from British colonial times was excavated from the site of the Equitable Building. By January 1914, crews had excavated the foundation and dug to the bedrock 83 ft below street level. The steel work was built to the second floor using six derricks; the steel frame above that point was erected using lighter derricks with longer masts and booms. There were some accidents during construction, including two incidents in which workers were killed. One worker died after a crane fell on the Broadway side of the building, while another died when a crane dropped a girder onto a platform where six men were working.</p><br>
<p>The steel frame reached street level in February 1914. The cornerstone was officially laid on April 30, 1914, at a ceremony attended by mayor John Purroy Mitchel. The Equitable Building was the first private construction project in New York City where the mayor attended the cornerstone-laying ceremony. Work on the superstructure officially began on June 10, 1914. Work on the building was completed on February 1, 1915.</p><br>
<h3>Use</h3><br>
<p>The Equitable Building was completed on May 1, 1915, The Equitable Society itself occupied 125,000 ft2, a little more than 10% of the total floor area, on the sixth through eighth floors. Other early lessees included tenants as diverse as General Electric, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the Fidelity Trust Company, and American Smelting & Refining. The Equitable Building was also occupied by industrial concerns such as the American Can Company, Kennecott Copper Company, E. I. du Pont de Nemours, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, and Aluminum Company of America, as well as railroads such as Missouri Pacific Railroad, Union Pacific Railroad, and Southern Railway. The Equitable Building&#39;s other tenants included banks such as Barclays, Marine Midland Bank, and Mellon Bank; financial firms such as Kidder, Peabody & Co. and American Express; and the offices of New York attorney general Robert Abrams. Equitable Life itself only had its home office in the Equitable Building until 1924, when it moved to 393 Seventh Avenue (now 11 Penn Plaza).</p><br>
<h4>1910s through 1930s</h4><br>
<p>At the time of its completion, the Equitable Building had 20,000 employees working inside it, and 50,000 additional daily visitors. The buildings valuation was increased from $20.5 million to $25 million that year, because of a prosperous realty market at the time. The following year, the Equitable Office Building Corporation applied for a reduction in the buildings valuation from $25 million to $18 million, due to foreclosures on other large buildings in New York City. Further devaluation occurred in 1921, when the building was estimated to be worth $11.5 million, but by the next year, the building was re-valued at $30 million, making it among the city&#39;s most valuable properties.</p><br>
<p>The edifice was first placed for sale in 1923, with du Pont offering the building for $40 million. In 1925, du Pont sold the Equitable Building for $38.5 million to the New York Empire Company, a subsidiary of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen. The next year, the Brotherhood sold the building to a syndicate composed of William Henry Vanderbilt, Harry C. Cushing III, and Leroy W. Baldwin for $40 million. By 1928, the Equitable Building was assessed at $31 million, making it the highest-valued building in New York City.</p><br>
<h4>1940s through 1960s</h4><br>
<p>By the 1940s, the Equitable Office Building Corporation was in poor financial shape. Bankruptcy proceedings started in 1940, but were delayed due to World War II; three potential investors submitted dueling proposals in 1946. The building was refinanced in 1947, receiving a first-mortgage loan of $14.5 million, among the largest ever in New York City&#39;s history. At this time, Equitable Life sold the mortgage on the tower.</p><br>
<p>In 1954, Webb and Knapp bought all of the Equitable Office Building Corporations common stock, and thereby acquired ownership of the building. Lawrence Wien bought the lease for the land in 1956, though Webb and Knapp retained ownership of the building as well as its operating sublease. By then, Equitable was planning to build the new 1285 Avenue of the Americas on Sixth Avenue between 51st and 52nd streets in Midtown Manhattan. Two years later, the Equitable Life Assurance Company bought the building outright, as part of a $25 million exchange wherein Webb and Knapp bought the Sixth Avenue plot. In addition, Wien assumed the buildings operating sublease the same year. Equitable moved to 1285 Avenue of the Americas in 1961 from its previous home office at 393 Seventh Avenue.</p><br>
<h4>1970s to present</h4><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978.</p><br>
<p>Silverstein Properties purchased the Equitable Building in 1980 for $60 million, in partnership with five pension funds whose mortgage nearly covered the purchase price. After buying the building, Larry Silverstein renovated and restored it at a cost of $30 million, The renovation was completed in 1990.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, Silverstein announced another round of renovations, which cost $50 million and were undertaken by Beyer Blinder Belle. The renovation was completed in July 2019. Several murals resembling street art were installed on the third floor in November 2019. Tenants include the New York City Department of City Planning, Macmillan Publishers, architecture firm Beyer Blinder Belle, the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, the New York City Housing Development Corporation, and Tower Research Capital.</p><br>
<h2>Notable incidents</h2><br>
<p>There were numerous incidents where parts of the building were damaged. For instance, lightning caused part of the cornice to break off during 1925. In March 1942, a seven-inch (17 cm) shell struck the 37th floor of the building but caused little damage and no injuries. The shell was one of eight fired by an anti-aircraft battery near the East River by mistake; the other rounds fell harmlessly into the river. The 1942 incident made the Equitable Building the first in New York City to suffer war damage during World War II, and it subsequently took out an insurance policy. In February 1953, a broken water main flooded the basements with 2 e6gal of water, temporarily disabling the elevators.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the Equitable Buildings history, several people have died after they fell or jumped from the building. In the buildings early years, such incidents included a clerk who landed on a taxi in 1925; a woman who jumped from the roof after losing money in the Wall Street Crash of 1929; a broker who jumped in 1937; and an incident in 1930 where a jumper killed both himself and a truck driver on the ground. There were also several people who killed themselves inside the building, such as the shooting suicide of a politician in 1933 and another one in 1937.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<h3>Critical reception</h3><br>
<p>Many architectural critics had negative comments about the Equitable Building. Francisco Mujica stated in 1927 that "its intelligent interior arrangement and the central location of its 50 elevators" was the only appealing part of the Equitable Building. Another critic called it a "monstrous parasite on the veins and arteries of New York". Sally A. Kitt Chappell wrote that the Equitable Building "was tall but without the redeeming slender, spirelike quality of a tower, and yet its height prevented it from having the urbanistic decorum of an office block". However, Chappell also wrote that the building had "mitigate two of the major evils of which skyscrapers were accused, as its fireproofing and elevator service attest."</p><br>
<p>There was also significant resistance to the building&#39;s shape. Opponents stated that the building also overwhelmed nearby infrastructure by blocking ventilation, straining nearby transit facilities, and preventing firemen from easily reaching the upper floors. The shadow was more than six times the lot area and up to 0.2 mi long. One journal stated that the Equitable Building cast a 7 acre shadow on its surroundings, including a permanent shadow on the Singer Building up to its 27th floor and the City Investing Building up to its 24th floor, and completely cutting off sunshine to at least three other adjacent buildings shorter than 21 stories. Even during the cornerstone laying, Mayor Mitchel had alluded to the possibility that the Equitable Building might be the last bulky skyscraper to be erected in New York City.</p><br>
<h3>Zoning law</h3><br>
<p>The Equitable Building&#39;s construction was one of the influences behind the passage of zoning reform in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Opposition to super-tall buildings dated as far back as 1894. The Committee on Congestion of Population in New York, as well as the Fifth Avenue Association, were among the groups that advocated for such legislation to limit building heights. The New York City Board of Aldermens Building Commission had published preliminary reports for zoning controls in 1913, when the Equitable Building was barely under construction. Nevertheless, in the following years, opponents of super-tall skyscrapers frequently cited the Equitable Buildings bulk.</p><br>
<p>After the Equitable Buildings completion, numerous nearby property owners filed for reduced property valuation assessments on the basis that significant rental income had been taken by the shadow that the building cast. Following the public criticism of the Equitable Building, the real estate industry finally ceased its objections to new legislation, and the 1916 Zoning Resolution was passed. The legislation limited the height and required setbacks for new buildings to allow the penetration of sunlight to street level. New buildings were thus required to withdraw progressively at a defined angle from the street as they rose, in order to preserve sunlight and the open atmosphere in their surroundings. Chappell writes that if the Equitable Building were completed after the resolutions passage, it would have had two setbacks below the 18th floor, and the building above that point would have been a small tower. The effort to place restrictions on land use in New York City led to the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act, a nationwide zoning legislation. The subsequent 1961 Zoning Resolution allowed the construction of bulky towers if they contained plazas.</p><br>
<p>The Commonwealth Building is a 14-story, 194 ft commercial office tower in Portland, Oregon, United States. Located at 421 SW 6th Avenue between Washington and Harvey Milk Streets, it was designed by architect Pietro Belluschi and built between 1944 and 1948. The building was originally known as the Equitable Building and is noted as one of the first glass box towers ever built, pioneering many modern features and predating the more famous Lever House in New York City.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction on the building began in 1944, with it opening in 1948 as the Equitable Building. The building, which was built as the headquarters in Portland of the Equitable Savings and Loan Association, was originally intended to be 12 stories high but was later expanded to 14. It was the first tower to be sheathed in aluminum, the first to use double-glazed window panels, and was the first to be completely sealed and fully air-conditioned. In 1965, the building was renamed as the Commonwealth Building when the Equitable Center (now Unitus Plaza) opened, which was also designed by Pietro Belluschi.</p><br>
<p>The Commonwealth Building was added to the National Register of Historic Places (as the Equitable Building) in 1976. In 1980, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) designated the Commonwealth Building as a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark. In 1982, the building was the recipient of the Twenty-five Year Award, of the American Institute of Architects. In 1993, Weston Investment Co. LLC bought the building for $1.9 million. Unico Properties and Cigna Realty Investors bought the building in 2007 from Weston for $27 million, and spent $7 million more on renovations to the structure. The building was sold again by Unico in 2013 for $41 million when Unico bought out Cigna. Unico sold the tower to KBS in 2016 for $69 million.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Designed by noted Oregon architect Pietro Belluschi, the 207,864 ft2 tower is of the International Style.</p><br>
<h2>Designations and awards</h2><br>
<p>The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is also designated as a National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the ASME. The ASME History & Heritage Committee bestowed this landmark status for the specific feature: the first large commercial building in the United States to pioneer the use of heat pumps for heating and cooling.</p><br>
<p>A. H. Stephens State Park is a 1,177 acre Georgia state park located in Crawfordville. The park is named for Alexander H. Stephens, the Vice President of the Confederate States of America, and a former Georgia governor. The park contains Stephens home, Liberty Hall, which has been fully restored to its original 1875 style. The parks museum houses one of Georgia&#39;s largest collections of American Civil War artifacts. The park also offers several mill ponds for fishing and nature trails.</p><br>
<p>The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as A. H. Stephens State Park. It includes four contributing sites, twelve contributing structures, and one other contributing object. It includes Colonial Revival and Rustic Style architecture.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Alexander Hamilton Stephens once owned the land of A. H. Stephens State Park. After he died, the property came under the control of the Stephens Monument Commission, a group chartered to protect Liberty Hall and its surroundings. The state received the land in 1933 to establish Georgia&#39;s third-oldest state park. The USA Government later acquired several hundred acres of land adjacent to the property. The current boundary of the park was completed by transferring ownership of this area to the state.</p><br>
<p>The museum was established in the 1950s after work by Horace Holden, Stephens&#39; niece and a United Daughters of the Confederacy member, who assisted in creating it.</p><br>
<p>The parks civil engineering was built during the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps and Works Progress Administration. The state acquired 15 acres of Taliaferro County Board of Education-owned property in 2001, which increased the parks current acreage.</p><br>
<h2>Liberty Hall</h2><br>
<p>The Liberty Hall, also known as Bachelor&#39;s Hall, built in 1834, is one of the structures on the site and is separately listed on the NRHP. It is a National Historic Landmark maintained by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources. A. H. Stephens bought the estate in 1845 and lived in this house until 1875 when he tore down the main structure to construct Liberty Hall. The two-story "big house" is a traditional 4 × 4 with four rooms on each level.</p><br>
<p>Many of Stephens books are housed in a smaller structure behind the facility, where he spent much of his time after the war. After Stephens died in 1883, Liberty Hall, owned by his surviving relatives, served as a boardinghouse until 1932, when it was donated to Georgia. Stephens grave is on the front lawn, beneath a marble statue.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>21 Tent/trailer/RV campsites</p><br>
<p>4 Cottages</p><br>
<p>30 Horse stables</p><br>
<p>18 Horse campsites</p><br>
<p>1 Group camp</p><br>
<p>1 Pioneer campground</p><br>
<p>2 Picnic shelters</p><br>
<p>1 Group shelter</p><br>
<h2>Annual events</h2><br>
<p>Junior/Senior Fishing Rodeos (June)</p><br>
<p>Christmas on Lake Liberty (December)</p><br>
<p>Victorian Christmas Program (December)</p><br>
<p>The Miami Circle, also known as The Miami River Circle, Brickell Point, or The Miami Circle at Brickell Point Site, is an archaeological site in Brickell, Miami, Florida. It consists of a perfect circle measuring 38 feet  of 600 postmolds that contain 24 holes or basins cut into the limestone bedrock, on a coastal spit of land, surrounded by a large number of other minor holes. It predates other known permanent settlements on the East Coast. It is believed to have been the location of a structure, built by the Tequesta  Indians, in what was possibly their capital. Discovered in 1998, the site is believed to be somewhere between 1,700 and 2,000 years old.</p><br>
<p>On February 5, 2002, the site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was declared a National Historic Landmark on January 16, 2009.</p><br>
<p>On February 3, 2014, the Miami Herald reported additional postholes had been excavated in Downtown Miami, further indicating presence of ancient habitation.</p><br>
<p>The state bought the 2.5-acre site for $26.7 million to save the valuable historical artifact. Because of the fragility of the artifact, it was buried again beneath layers of limestone, rather than putting it on display.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site of 401 Brickell Avenue, named after William Brickell, co-founder of Miami in the 1870s, held an apartment complex until 1998. Property developer Michael Baumann purchased the site for $8.5 million to build a luxury condominium, and in July 1998 tore down the standing apartment complex. According to City of Miami historic preservation code requirements, he was obliged to commission a routine archaeological field survey of the site prior to commencement of building, but this didn&#39;t occur until Bob Carr, then Director of the Miami-Dade County Historic Preservation Division, pressed the issue with the City and Baumann. The Miami-Dade Historic Preservation Division, along with volunteers and employees of the Archaeological & Historical Conservancy, conducted the salvage excavation of the site.</p><br>
<p>In the course of the exploration, the team discovered a number of holes cut into the Oolitic limestone bedrock. On examining the layout of the holes, the land surveyor postulated that they were part of a circle 38 ft in diameter. Having calculated the center, he projected the likely location of the remaining holes. Excavation revealed that there were 24 holes forming a perfect circle in the limestone. Examination of the earth revealed numerous archeological artifacts, ranging from shell-tools and stone axe-heads to human teeth and charcoal from fires.</p><br>
<p>The developer Baumann offered to pay to relocate the circle to another site for preservation, an idea that former mayor and current City Commissioner Joe Carollo supported. Public opposition grew, concerned that the removal could potentially destroy one of the most archaeologically significant finds in North America. The Elizabeth Ordway Dunn Foundation made a donation of $25,000 to fund further exploration of the site, which continued until February 1999.</p><br>
<p>Following issuance of building permits by the City of Miami during the last week of January 1999, the Dade Heritage Trust (Miami-Dade Countys largest historic preservation organization) filed a lawsuit on January 31, 1999, seeking an injunction against further construction on site. The Trust filed the suit and arranged for an emergency hearing at the home of Circuit Court Judge Thomas Wilson. The basis for the lawsuit was that the developer had not obtained required approval in the form of a certificate of appropriateness from the City of Miamis Historic and Environmental Preservation Board. At the hearing, the developer and the City were represented by counsel. Following arguments and Dade Heritage Trust&#39;s admission that it was not prepared to post a bond to support the injunction request, the Judge denied the motion for temporary injunction. Baumann agreed to postpone construction on the site for thirty days while the archaeologists finished their work.</p><br>
<p>County Mayor for Miami-Dade Alex Penelas and others interested in saving the Circle, asked the County Commission to file a lawsuit to take ownership of the property. The Commission approved such action on February 18, and Judge Richard Feder ordered a temporary injunction against building on the site. Baumann agreed to sell, but asked for $50 million, a price which he eventually lowered to $26.7 million. In an unprecedented move, the State of Florida Preservation 2000 land acquisition program purchased the site from Baumann for that sum in November 1999, using both state funds and donations from various foundations and private citizens. The state considered creating a 3-D replica of the buried circle so that visitors could envision what the 2,000-year-old circle looked like.</p><br>
<p>The "Brickell Point Site" was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 5, 2002.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Artifacts recovered from the Miami Circle site are stored and on display at HistoryMiami. It is the official repository for all archaeological materials recovered in Miami-Dade County.</p><br>
<h3>Age</h3><br>
<p>In order to date the site, pieces of burnt wood were sent in March 1999 for radiocarbon dating by John Ricisak, a specialist in the County Historic Preservation department. The results were a surprise, indicating that the wood was between 1,800–2,000 years old. Some scholars, most notably Dr. Jerald Milanich, doubted that the circle was as old as the wood. Further evidence to support the theory that the holes were of that age comes from Tom Scott and Harley Means of the Florida Geological Survey, who point to the buildup of a calcite "duricrust" on the edge of the cut face. Though this is an extremely imprecise way to date the holes, it rules out that they were of modern origin.</p><br>
<h3>Origin</h3><br>
<p>Initial theories on the origin of the site by many members of the public were that it was created by the Olmec or Mayan civilizations. No evidence was found of any artifacts of Central American origin, however. Further examination of the artifacts found at the site, particularly the shell tools, shark teeth, and other items of aquatic origin, showed that they matched perfectly with artifacts known to be from a local tribe, the historic Tequesta.</p><br>
<p>The Tequesta were a tribe who were believed to be primarily nomadic, hunting fish and alligators in the Florida Everglades. They were considered aggressive as they killed many early European explorers who attempted landfall in Florida. The Tequesta, like many other Native Americans, succumbed to the new infectious diseases brought by European colonists, as well as were disrupted by warfare.</p><br>
<h3>Purpose</h3><br>
<p>Randolph Widmer of the University of Houston suggested holes were postholes for some kind of structure, probably a cone-shaped building with a hole in the top. These sorts of structures were known to have existed in the Eastern United States, yet none was thought to have had such a permanent base as the Miami Circle. Critics of this theory pointed out that there was no evidence of fire on the bedrock as is usually found in the remains of this type of buildings. Widmer&#39;s response was that, given the weather common across Florida and resulting flooding, the early people may have raised the structure on stilts. This theory also suggested that the seemingly random array of holes could have been for support posts. They appear in clusters perhaps due to the necessity to replace them as the wood rotted.</p><br>
<p>Researchers next tried to determine the purpose of the structure. Two obvious candidates are living quarters, or a ceremonial building of some sort. The lack of evidence for the former began to suggest the latter, and further evidence can be put forward to support the theory. Firstly the effort necessary to create such a structure would involve considerable teamwork, particularly given the lack of tools. This sort of teamwork is often seen in the construction of religious buildings.</p><br>
<p>Secondly, there were certain anomalies in the artifacts discovered. Many common Tequesta relics were found at the site—tools and perhaps decorative items made from shells and other aquatic materials like sharks&#39; teeth—but there were a few pieces discovered that did not fit. The main items were two basalt axe heads. These axes would have been a particularly sought after item on the southern Florida coast due to the lack of any equivalent hard stone in the area, yet these axe heads are completely untouched. Further analysis of the stone by Dr. Jacqueline Dixon, University of Miami, found that the basalt was likely from the region of Macon, Georgia, some 600 mi away. Additional items that may have been placed in, or buried under the structure were a complete 5 ft long shark skeleton, aligned east to west, a dolphin skull, and a complete carapace of a sea-turtle. Four human teeth were also found, though no other evidence pointed to its being a burial site.</p><br>
<h3>Former septic tank</h3><br>
<p>University of Florida archaeologist Jerald Milanich was concerned that there was, from the previous apartment block, a septic tank that was aligned perfectly at the edge of the circle. He suggested that the circle could be nothing more than a sink for the sewage from the septic tank.</p><br>
<p>In attempting to refute this claim, Ricicek pointed to two things. Firstly there was clearly a terracotta outflow from the tank that would not tie with the need for a sink, and the plans for the apartment complex clearly show a sewage outflow to the south, into the river. Secondly, returning to the analysis of the calcite buildup on the holes by the Florida Geological Survey, the bedrock that had been cut out to lay the tank had little or no duricrust, showing the considerable age difference between the septic tank construction and the Circle.</p><br>
<h2>Miami Circle Park</h2><br>
<p>HistoryMiami, then known as the Historical Museum of Southern Florida, signed a 44-year lease of the site in March 2008.</p><br>
<p>A waterfront park managed by HistoryMiami opened in 2011. The circle itself remains buried to protect it, while an audio tour and several panels describing it are available.</p><br>
<p>Fort McAllister was a Confederate earthen-work fort used to defend Savannah, Georgia during the American Civil War. It was the southernmost of the forts defending Savannah and was involved in the most battles. It was located on the Ogeechee River in Bryan County. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Fort McAllister was one of three forts protecting Savannah, the others being Fort Pulaski and Fort James Jackson standing in Confederate defiance of the Union naval blockade. The southeast coast of the United States was the place where both combatants tested the latest in naval artillery and coastal defenses. Fort McAllister was the key to unlocking the defenses around Savannah, one of the most important Confederate ports on the Atlantic Ocean.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The fort was designed by Capt. John McCrady. In 1861 Gen. Robert E. Lee inspected the fort and recommended making it stronger. McCrady made the changes recommended by Lee and the earthen walls were better able to withstand bombardment from artillery fire. The fort had seven cannon emplacements. The bombproof area in the center housed a hospital, supply area, barracks, officer&#39;s quarters, gun power, and additional guns. A 10-inch mortar was kept outside the fort to keep it from shaking the dirt off the walls when it was fired.</p><br>
<p>The fort was attacked seven times by ships over the next two years. The fort withstood all of these attacks with only minimal damage and few casualties. There were four naval attacks in 1862. Union ironclad monitors began to attack the fort on January 27, 1863, starting with the Montauk and later with the Passaic, Nahant, and Patapsco. The Montauk had an 11-inch and a 15-inch cannon, the largest size used in the war. The ironclad bombarded the fort for 5 hours but caused no casualties and little damage because the earth absorbed the artillery shells and the damage was easily repaired. Similarly, the fort&#39;s cannons hit the ironclad 15 times but caused no significant damage. The Montauk made another unsuccessful attack on February 1, except that fort commander Maj. John B. Gallie was killed. A 7-hour bombardment on March 3 also failed to damage the fort.</p><br>
<p>The fort was the site of the sinking of the CSS Nashville on February 28, 1863.</p><br>
<p>On December 13, 1864, Gen. William T. Sherman reached the fort on his March to the Sea. Gen. William B. Hazens infantry division attacked the fort, defended by Maj. George Wayne Anderson and some 230 troops. The Union force overpowered the forts defenders in about 15 minutes of battle. Fort McAllister was the last fort defending Savannah. After it fell, Gen. William J. Hardee withdrew his 10,000 troops that were defending Savannah and Sherman captured the city without resistance. Sherman&#39;s army abandoned the fort and burned its bunkers.</p><br>
<p>During the evening that the fort fell, Anderson was being held at the McAllister family home, the new headquarters of General William Babcock Hazen. General Hazen and Lt. Col. Strong invited General Sherman to dinner, to celebrate their victory. In a kind gesture of respect, General Hazen also invited Major Anderson to attend the meal, after clearing the request with Sherman. The discussion was surely lively - during the meal Anderson engaged in a heated exchange with General Sherman about the tactics employed to defend the fort and the bravery of all who fought there. Cigars were exchanged and smoked, and tributes were made to the fallen. However, Sherman remained greatly upset at Anderson&#39;s use of land mines in the defense of the fort, and ordered the Major to personally join his fellow captured Confederates on mine-clearing detail.</p><br>
<h2>After the war</h2><br>
<p>In the late 1930s, Henry Ford bought the property and began restoring it. The International Paper Company purchased the property from Ford&#39;s estate and gave it to the State of Georgia in 1958. The Georgia Historical Commission continued to restore the fort to its 1863-64 appearance. The museum displays many artifacts. The fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. The fort site was combined with the adjacent Richmond Hill State Park to create the Fort McAllister State Historic Park.</p><br>
<p>The Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia, was the biggest ironworks in the Confederacy during the American Civil War, and a significant factor in the decision to make Richmond the Confederate capital.</p><br>
<p>Tredegar supplied about half the artillery used by the Confederate States Army, as well as the iron plating for CSS Virginia, the first Confederate ironclad warship, which fought in the historic Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862. The works avoided destruction by troops during the evacuation of the city, and continued production through the mid-20th century. Now classified as a National Historic Landmark District, the site serves as the main building of the American Civil War Museum.</p><br>
<p>The name Tredegar derives from the Welsh industrial town that supplied much of the company&#39;s early workforce.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Founding (1836–1841)</h3><br>
<p>In 1836, a group of Richmond businessmen and industrialists led by Francis B. Deane, Jr. set about to capitalize on the growing railroad boom in the United States. The group hired Rhys Davies, then a young engineer, to construct a new facility, brought a number of his fellow iron workers from Tredegar, Wales, to construct the furnaces and rolling mills. The foundry was named in honor of the town of Tredegar, where iron works of the same name were constructed in the early 19th century. The new works opened in 1837, yet the Panic of 1837 and accompanying downturn resulted in hardship for the new company. Davies died in Richmond in September 1838 from stab wounds sustained in a fight with a workman and was buried on Belle Isle in the James River.</p><br>
<h3>Management under Joseph Reid Anderson (1841 – Civil War)</h3><br>
<p>In 1841, the owners turned management over to a 28-year-old civil engineer named Joseph Reid Anderson who proved to be an able manager. Anderson acquired ownership of the foundry in 1848, after two years of leasing the works, and was soon doing work for the United States government. Anderson began introducing slave labor to cut production costs. By the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, half of the 900 workers were slaves, including many in skilled positions. By 1860, Anderson&#39;s father-in-law Dr. Robert Archer had joined the business and Tredegar became a leading iron producer in the country.</p><br>
<p>The commissioning of 900 miles of railroad track in Virginia, largely financed by the Virginia Board of Public Works between 1846 and 1853, offered a further market in steam locomotives and rail stock. One of those attributed with starting the Tredegar Locomotive Works with John Souther was Zerah Colburn, the well-known locomotive engineer and journalist. The company produced about 70 steam locomotives between 1850 and 1860. From 1852 to 1854, John Souther also managed the locomotive shop at Tredegar. Its locomotive production work is sometimes listed with combinations of the names Anderson, Souther, Delaney, and Pickering. Tredegar also produced the steam propulsion plants for the USS Roanoke (1855) and the USS Colorado (1856).</p><br>
<p>Prior to the Civil War, industry expanded at the Tredegar site under Andersons direction to include a new flour mill on land leased to Lewis D. Crenshaw and a stove works on land leased to A.J. Bowers and Asa Snyder. By 1860, Crenshaw and Co. had established the Crenshaw Woolen Mill on adjoining land they owned. This enterprise employed more than 50 people. The Crenshaw Woolen Mill became "the principal source of supply for the Confederate Armys requirements of uniform material" during the first half of the Civil War. A May 16, 1863 fire on the Tredegar/Crenshaw site damaged the mill, which was not rebuilt, and Tredegar purchased the land from Crenshaw and Co. by 1863.</p><br>
<h3>American Civil War</h3><br>
<p>By 1860, the Tredegar Iron Works was the largest of its kind in the South, a fact that played a significant role in the decision to relocate the capital of the Confederacy from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond in May 1861. Tredegar supplied high-quality munitions to the Confederacy throughout the war, until the capture of Richmond in 1865.</p><br>
<p>Its wartime production included the iron plating for the first Confederate ironclad warship, the CSS Virginia which fought in the historic Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862; credit for approximately 1,100 artillery pieces during the war, about half of the South&#39;s total domestic production of artillery during the war years of 1861–1865, including the development and production of Brooke rifles; large rifled cannons intended for the nascent CSA Navy and an answer to the rifled, armor piercing, Dahlgren Guns favored by the Union. One Brook Rifle was even used as a rail-mounted siege cannon. The company also manufactured railroad steam locomotives in the same period.</p><br>
<p>As a result of his difficulties competing with Northern industries due to his higher labor and raw material costs, Anderson was a strong supporter of southern secession and became a Brigadier General in the Confederate Army as the war broke out. He was wounded at Glendale during the Seven Days Battles of the Peninsula Campaign in 1862 and served in the Ordnance Department for the duration of the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>As the war continued with more and more men conscripted into the Confederate armies, Tredegar experienced a lack of skilled laborers. Scarce supplies of metal also hurt the companys manufacturing abilities during the war, and as the conflict progressed it was noticed that Tredegars products were beginning to lose quality as well as quantity. Even in the summer of 1861, soon after the beginning of the Civil War, metal was so scarce that the iron works failed to produce a single piece of artillery for an entire month.</p><br>
<p>By 1864, Tredegar was producing nine different types of projectiles for the Confederacy, compounded by the many types of foreign built and captured weapons. Then in June 1864, Hunters cavalry destroyed the companys best gun iron furnaces, drastically reducing ordnance production by July and August when existing stockpiles ran out. Thus it cast 128 weapons during the first six months of 1864, but only 85 pieces during the last half of the year, and most of those guns were of questionable quality. Worse yet, Anderson noted that because of the depreciated Confederate currency and the governments failure to pay invoices (the Niter and Mining Bureau alone owed the firm $300,000, plus the Ordnance Department had not paid its account since October 4 and the navy and Railroad Bureau were also deeply in arrears). Thus, in December Tredegar on many occasions requested the government take over its blast furnace (and the problem of acquiring and provisioning slaves), but even after extensive negotiations (and a 2 week shutdown for repairs in early January, the companys financial distress only grew, with over $1 million in outstanding bills by February 1, 1865, and Anderson had to borrow $100,000 to meet its first payroll for the month.</p><br>
<p>During the evacuation of Richmond by the Confederates on the night of April 2–3, 1865, the retreating troops were under orders to burn munitions dumps and industrial warehouses that would have been valuable to the North. The Tredegar battalion defended the works despite widespread looting in the nearby warehouse district. However, despite Gorgas&#39; order not to destroy ordnance facilities, the mob set fire to the arsenal, causing an explosion that shattered nearly every window. Nonetheless, facing resistance at the plant itself, the mob retreated to the town center. As a result, the Tredegar Iron Works is one of few Civil War-era buildings that survived the burning of Richmond.</p><br>
<h3>After the Civil War</h3><br>
<p>At the outset of hostilities, Anderson had wisely secured Tredegar assets overseas for the duration of the Civil War and, therefore, was able to restore his business when the Confederate currency collapsed. He petitioned USA President Andrew Johnson for a pardon for himself and Tredegar and was back in business before the end of 1865, regaining full ownership in 1867. That same year, Tredegar incorporated with a stock of $1,000,000.</p><br>
<p>Francis Thomas Glasgow, the father of Virginia writer and suffragist Ellen Glasgow, was a manager at Tredegar Iron Works, and Joseph Reid Anderson was her maternal uncle.</p><br>
<p>By 1873, Tredegar Iron Works was employing 1,200 workers and was a profitable business. However, the Panic of 1873 hit the company hard, and as a result of financing difficulties it did not transition to steel, and so faded from national prominence.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood of Oregon Hill cropped up as a company town-like development. When Joseph Anderson died on a vacation in New Hampshire in 1892, he was succeeded by his son Colonel Archer Anderson. The Tredegar company remained in business throughout the first half of the 20th century, and supplied requirements of the armed forces of the United States during World War I and World War II. In 1957, Anderson&#39;s descendants sold the land to Ethyl Corporation, which began restoration of some of the surviving structures.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation as a Civil War museum site and tourist attraction</h2><br>
<p>In the 21st century, the buildings at the Tredegar site have been preserved through development of the site to commemorate the Civil War. The site is also used for various festivals and public events such as the Richmond Folk Festival.</p><br>
<p>The Pattern Building is used as the main visitors&#39; center for Richmond National Battlefield Park. The American Civil War Museum at Historic Tredegar is a separate museum at the former Tredegar Ironworks.</p><br>
<h3>Valentine Riverside</h3><br>
<p>In the 1990s, the Court End-based Valentine Museum opened a second museum site at the Tredegar Ironworks. The focus of the museum experience was industrial history. Interpretive tours to and from the site covered industrial history, African American history, and Civil War history. The venture, however, was short-lived. The "Valentine on the James" opened on Memorial Day 1994 and closed to the public on Labor Day 1995.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War Visitor Center at Tredegar Iron Works</h3><br>
<p>The main visitor center for Richmond National Battlefield Park opened at the Tredegar Iron Works site in June 2000. The Civil War Visitor Center at Tredegar Iron Works is located in the restored pattern building and offers three floors of exhibits, an interactive map table, a film about the Civil War battles around Richmond, a bookstore, and interpretive NPS rangers on site daily to provide programs and to aid visitors.</p><br>
<h3>Lincoln statue</h3><br>
<p>In 2000, the former Tredegar Iron Works facility overlooking the James River near downtown Richmond became the site of the main Visitor&#39;s Center of the Richmond National Battlefield Park. Sculptor David Frech of Newburgh, New York, was commissioned by The United States Historical Society of Richmond to commemorate the historic arrival of Abraham Lincoln and his son Tad Lincoln and their tour of the burnt-out Union-captured Richmond, Virginia, April 4, 1865, 10 days before his assassination.</p><br>
<p>Funds were raised by the Historical society through donations and the selling of miniature versions of the statue as well as bronzed resin copies. The statue, much like the Arthur Ashe Monument, received a wide array of criticism for its placement. Traditionally reserved for statues of key figures of the Confederacy protests were held at the unveiling April 5, 2003, namely by the Sons of Confederate Veterans. Robert H. Kline, chairman of the historical society, the Richmond-based nonprofit company that commissioned the statue stated that the statue was for the purpose of reconciliation "He came on a mission of peace and reconciliation and I think the statue will serve that purpose for a very long time."</p><br>
<p>Dignitaries at the installation ceremony included former governors Douglas Wilder and Gerald L. Baliles, former mayor of Richmond, then-Lt. Governor, and future Governor Tim Kaine, and then-Mayor of Richmond Rudy McCollum. The dedication ceremony was buzzed by a plane trailing a banner proclaiming Sic semper tyrannis, which is not only Virginia&#39;s motto (meaning "Thus always to tyrants"), but also what John Wilkes Booth, according to his diary, called out while assassinating Lincoln.</p><br>
<p>The statue is made of a bronze cast depicting Lincoln and his son Tad on a bench with Lincolns arm around his son. The bench was deliberately made long enough so that viewers may sit next to either statue on the bench to take photographs. The words "To Bind Up The Nations Wounds" from Lincoln&#39;s Second Inaugural Address are carved into granite behind them.</p><br>
<h3>American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar</h3><br>
<p>The idea of another museum on the site was realized in 2006 when the American Civil War Center at Historic Tredegar opened to the public. James M. McPherson described the museum as "a truly comprehensive exhibit and education center weaving together Union, Confederate, and African-American threads... much needed for future generations to understand how the Civil War shaped the nation." The Center contains interactive theaters, plasma-screen maps, and artifacts. The museum&#39;s exhibits were put together by a team of historians that included James M. McPherson of Princeton, Bill Cooper of Louisiana State University, John Fleming of the Cincinnati Museum Center, Charles Dew of Williams College, David W. Blight of Yale and Emory Thomas at the University of Georgia. In November 2013 the Civil War Center was merged with the Museum of the Confederacy and became the American Civil War Museum in January 2014.</p><br>
<p>The Iowa State Capitol, commonly called the Iowa Statehouse, is in Iowa&#39;s capital city, Des Moines. As the seat of the Iowa General Assembly, the building houses the Iowa Senate, Iowa House of Representatives, the Office of the Governor, and the Offices of the Attorney General, Auditor, Treasurer, and Secretary of State. The building also includes a chamber for the Iowa Supreme Court, although court activities usually take place in the neighboring Iowa Supreme Court building. The building was constructed between 1871 and 1886, and is the only five-domed capitol in the country.</p><br>
<p>Located at East 9th Street and Grand Avenue, the Capitol is set atop a hill and offers a panoramic view of the city&#39;s downtown and the West Capitol Terrace. Various monuments and memorials are to its sides and front, including the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Civil War Monument and the Lincoln and Tad statue.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Not long after achieving statehood, Iowa recognized that the Capitol should be moved farther west than Iowa City, and the 1st General Assembly, in 1846, authorized a commission to select a location. In 1847, the town of Monroe City, in Jasper County, was selected as the new location of the capitol and platted out, but the 1848 Legislature decided not to move the capitol from Iowa City. In 1854, the General Assembly decreed a location “within two miles of the Raccoon fork of the Des Moines River.” The exact spot was chosen when Wilson Alexander Scott gave the state nine and one-half acres where the Capitol now stands. Final legislative approval for the construction of a permanent statehouse was given on April 8, 1870.</p><br>
<p>A three-story brick building served as a temporary Capitol and was in use for 30 years, until destroyed by fires: in the meantime, the permanent Capitol was being planned and built.</p><br>
<p>In 1870, the General Assembly established a Capitol commission including local businessman and politician Peter A. Dey to employ an architect, choose a plan for a building (not to cost more than $1.5 million), and proceed with the work, but only by using funds available without increasing the tax rate.</p><br>
<p>John C. Cochrane and Alfred H. Piquenard were designated as architects, and a cornerstone was laid on November 23, 1871. However, much of the original stone deteriorated through waterlogging and severe weather, and had to be replaced. The cornerstone was relaid on September 29, 1873.</p><br>
<p>Although the building could not be constructed for $1.5 million as planned, the Cochrane and Piquenard design was retained, and modifications were undertaken. Cochrane resigned in 1872, but Piquenard continued until his death in 1876. He was succeeded by two of his assistants, Mifflin E. Bell and W.F. Hackney. Bell redesigned the dome so that it better fit the proportions of the building. Hackney was the only architect who stayed on the project until the end.</p><br>
<p>The capitol building was dedicated on January 17, 1884, and it was completed sometime in 1886. The building commission made its final report on June 29, 1886, with a total cost of $2,873,294.59. The audit showed that only $3.77 was unaccounted for in the 15 years of construction.</p><br>
<h3>Fire and restoration</h3><br>
<p>On January 4, 1904, a fire was started when the gas lights were being converted into electricity. The fire swept through the areas that housed the Supreme Court and Iowa House of Representatives. A major restoration was performed and documented, with the addition of electrical lighting, elevators, and a telephone system. Little information is available about who performed the actual restoration during these early years. However, Elmer Garnsey created the ceiling artwork in the House Chamber.</p><br>
<p>These earlier efforts to preserve the Capitol mostly dealt with maintaining and upgrading its interior. It was not until 1965, when the dome was regilded, that legislators made significant investments in preserving the building&#39;s exterior.</p><br>
<p>By the early 1980s, the exterior of the Capitol had noticeably deteriorated. Sandstone pieces had begun falling from the building, prompting the installation of steel canopies at all entrances of the building to protect pedestrians. Decorative stone, whose deterioration had first been documented as early as the start of the 20th century, had also eroded.</p><br>
<p>Work on the exterior restoration began in the spring of 1983 and was completed in nine phases. Phase 9 work began in the spring of 1998, and the entire project was completed in the fall of 2001, at a cost of $41 million.</p><br>
<h3>International stature</h3><br>
<p>While its primary use is as the house of the legislative branch of Iowa government, the Capitol also functions as a living museum and state and international cultural facility.</p><br>
<p>Since 1987, the World Food Prize laureate award ceremony is held annually in October in the House of Representatives chamber of the statehouse. The ceremony rivals that of the Nobel Prize, drawing over 800 people from more than 75 countries. Each year, world-class performers take the stage to honor the World Food Prize Laureate. Past performers have included Ray Charles, John Denver, and Noa to name a few. Following the ceremony, the celebration continues at a laureate award dinner held in the Capitol rotunda.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architectural design of the Capitol, rectangular in form, with great windows and high ceilings, follows the traditional pattern of 19th-century planning for public buildings. A modified and refined Renaissance style gives the impression of strength and dignity combined with utility. The building measures from north to south and from east to west.</p><br>
<h2>Exterior</h2><br>
<p>The exterior of the building is entirely of stone with elaborate columns and handsomely designed cornices and capitals. Iowa stone is the foundation for the many porticoes of the building. The building is brick with limestone from Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, Ohio, and Illinois. The substructure is of dark Iowa stone topped by a heavy course of wari-colored granite cut from glacial boulders gathered from the Iowa prairie. The superstructure, or main part of the building, is of bluff colored sandstone from quarries along the Mississippi River in Missouri.</p><br>
<p>Both front and back porticoes have pediments supported by six Corinthian columns each. The pediment over the front entrance discloses a fine piece of allegorical sculpture.</p><br>
<p>The commanding feature is the central towering dome constructed of iron and brick and covered with tissue-paper thin sheets of pure 23-carat gold. There is a protective layer sealing the gold from the weather. The gold leafing was replaced in 1964–1965 at a cost of $79,938. The most recent regilding of the dome was carried out from 1998 to 1999, at a cost of about $482,000. The rotunda beneath the dome is in diameter. Four smaller domes of simple design rise from the four corners of the Capitol.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>The beauty, dignity, and arrangement of the interior become apparent as a visitor stands under the dome of the first floor. Broad, lofty corridors extend west, north, and south. Walls are highly decorated and the rooms and chambers of the capitol have a wide variety of Iowa wood as well as imported marble. Twenty-nine types of imported and domestic marble were used in the interior; and the wood used—walnut, cherry, catalpa, butternut, and oak—was nearly all from Iowa forests.</p><br>
<p>The marble grand staircase between the second and third floors is to the east and is the focal point of the building. Suites opening from the south corridor are those of the Governor, Auditor of State, and Treasurer of State. The historical Supreme Court Chamber is to the north; the Secretary of State&#39;s suite is to the west. The grand staircase ascends to a landing and divides north and south to bring visitors to the floor above, where the House of Representatives is on the north, the Senate is on the south side, and the Law Library on the west. The Victorian-styled Law Library features four stories of balcony shelves surrounding a central atrium and is open to the public on weekdays.</p><br>
<p>The ground floor houses a cafeteria and administrative offices.</p><br>
<h3>Art</h3><br>
<p>Around the rotunda on the frieze above the columns is the famous quotation from Abraham Lincoln&#39;s Gettysburg Address: "This nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."</p><br>
<p>Extending the full width of the east wall over the staircase is the great mural painting Westward, an idealized representation of the coming of the people who made Iowa. The painting was completed shortly after the start of the 20th century. Edwin H. Blashfield, the artist, wrote of it: "The main idea of the picture is a symbolical presentation of the Pioneers led by the spirits of Civilization and Enlightenment to the conquest by cultivation of the Great West."</p><br>
<p>In the central rotunda, suspended beneath the ceiling on wires is a very large banner of the insignia of the Grand Army of the Republic, which between 1894 and 1953 had a room in the state capitol dedicated for their use. They are the only non-state agency to have ever occupied space in the capitol.</p><br>
<h3>Displays</h3><br>
<p>The battle flags carried by the Iowa regiments in various wars are preserved in niches on the main floor: Civil War, 1; Spanish–American War, 13; World War I, 26. In the west hall is a plaque done by Nellie V. Walker in commemoration of the work of Iowa women in the fight for political equality and a memorial to those Iowans killed in Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom.</p><br>
<p>Also in the west hall is a model of the battleship on loan from the USA Department of the Navy. The model is 18 ft long and weighs about 1,350 lb. It is a perfect 1:48 scale model, with inch equaling 1 foot. The Iowa was the lead ship of her class of battleship and the fourth in the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 29th state. It is also the last lead ship of any class of United States battleships, and was the only ship of her class to have served in the Atlantic Ocean during World War II. On July 7, 2012, the retired Iowa opened to the public as a floating educational and naval museum at the Port of Los Angeles in San Pedro, California.</p><br>
<p>In the south hall across from the Governor&#39;s office is a collection of porcelain dolls representing the 41 Iowa First Ladies in miniature replicas of their inaugural gowns. Where actual descriptions of the gowns could not be found, they are typical of the period. As future First Ladies take their place, they, too, will be represented.</p><br>
<p>A two-week display of Baphomet and the seven tenets of the Satanic Temple was set up, with official approval, in the Iowa Capitol in December 2023. This drew criticism from Republican politicians. After the display was ruined, a failed Republican candidate for the Mississippi House of Representatives was charged with criminal mischief for allegedly vandalizing the display.</p><br>
<p>Kealakekua Bay is located on the Kona coast of the island of Hawaii about 12 mi south of Kailua-Kona.</p><br>
<p>Settled over a thousand years ago, the surrounding area contains many archeological and historical sites such as religious temples (heiaus) and also includes the spot where the first documented European to reach the Hawaiian islands, Captain James Cook, was killed. It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places listings on the island of Hawaii in 1973 as the Kealakekua Bay Historical District.</p><br>
<p>The bay is a marine life conservation district, a popular destination for kayaking, scuba diving, and snorkeling.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient history</h3><br>
<p>Settlement on Kealakekua Bay has a long history.</p><br>
<p>Hikiau Heiau is a luakini temple of Ancient Hawaii located at the south end of the bay, at coordinates {{coord|19|28|31|N|155|55|9|W|type:landmark_region:US-HI|name=Hikiau Heiau}}.</p><br>
<p>Cook recorded the large platform being about 16 ft high, 250 ft long, and 100 ft wide.</p><br>
<p>The sheer cliff face called Ka-pali-poko—a-Manuahi overlooking the bay houses burials of Hawaiian royalty and their accompanied companions and funerary items. The northwestern part of the cliff is called Ka-pali-kapu-o-Keoua. The name means "sacred cliffs of Keōua " in honor of Keōua Nui. He was sometimes known as the "father of kings" since many rulers were his descendants. The difficulty in accessing the cliff kept the exact burial places secret.</p><br>
<p>The village of Kaawaloa was at the north end of the bay in ancient times, where the Puhina O Lono Heiau was built, along with some royal residences.</p><br>
<p>The name of the village means "the distant Kava", from the medicinal plant used in religious rituals.</p><br>
<p>The name of the bay comes from ke ala ke kua in the Hawaiian Language which means "the god&#39;s pathway." This area was the focus of extensive Makahiki celebrations.</p><br>
<h3>Captain Cook and Kalaniʻōpuʻu</h3><br>
<p>Although there are theories that Spanish or Dutch sailors might have stopped here much earlier, the first documented European to arrive was Captain James Cook.</p><br>
<p>He and his crews on the Resolution and Discovery sighted Kealakekua Bay on the morning of January 17, 1779. He estimated several thousand people lived in the two villages, and many thousand more in the surrounding areas. On January 28, he performed the first Christian service on the islands, for the funeral of a crew member who had died.</p><br>
<p>Cook had entered the bay during Makahiki, a traditionally peaceful time. Cook and his men were welcomed, given much food and gifts from the island and treated as honored guests. John Ledyard, the only American on board Cook&#39;s third voyage, gives a detailed account of these events in his journals. Cook and his crew stayed for several weeks, returning to sea shortly after the end of the festival. After suffering damage to the mast during a storm, the ships returned two weeks later on February 12. This time, already fraying relations came to a head.</p><br>
<p>One of Cook&#39;s captains accused a native chieftain of stealing the Resolution&#39;s jolly boat. It was soon found unstolen and the native chief soured from the false accusation. Cook himself attempted to barter for the wood used to border the natives "Morai" (a sacred burial ground for certain high-ranking individuals). The native chiefs were mortified at this offer and refused to accept it. Cook later took the wood anyway. With a damaged mast, fraying relations with the natives and being heavily outnumbered, Cook attempted to lure Hawaiian chief Kalaniōpuu aboard his ship to hold him hostage in order to induce &#39;good behavior among the natives.&#39; Tensions mounted as Cook attempted to trick the chief, and natives surrounded the beach. Cook fired the first shot, and his men quickly shot several more natives. As Cook and his men attempted to retreat, Cook was stabbed through the chest by a native chief with an iron dagger which had been traded from Cook&#39;s own ship previously in the same visit. The majority of Cook&#39;s body was never recovered. Since Cook&#39;s men felt they could not leave without resupplying fresh water and further repair of their damaged mast, subsequent skirmishing resulted in dozens of native deaths by musket fire and the ships cannons; a portion of Kireekakooa, one of the towns in the bay, was also burned. Cook&#39;s death was depicted in a series of paintings called Death of Cook. The monument is accessed by a one-hour hike from the road or by crossing the bay by boat.</p><br>
<h3>Turmoil</h3><br>
<p>When Kalaniōpuu died in 1782, his oldest son Kiwalao officially inherited the kingdom, but his nephew Kamehameha I became guardian of the god Kūkailimoku. A younger son, Keōua Kuahuula, was not happy about this and provoked Kamehameha. Their forces met just south of the bay at the battle of Mokuōhai.</p><br>
<p>Kamehameha won control of the west and north sides of the island, but Keōua escaped. It would take over a decade to consolidate Kamehameha&#39;s control.</p><br>
<p>In 1786, merchant ships of the King George&#39;s Sound Company under command of the maritime fur traders Nathaniel Portlock and Captain George Dixon anchored in the harbor, but avoided coming ashore. They had been on Cook&#39;s voyage when he was killed by natives. In December 1788, the Iphigenia under William Douglas arrived with Chief Kaiana, who had already traveled to China.</p><br>
<p>The first American ship was probably the Lady Washington around this time under Captain John Kendrick. Two sailors, Parson Howel and James Boyd, left the ship (in 1790 or when it returned in 1793) and lived on the island.</p><br>
<p>In March 1790, the American ship Eleanora arrived at Kealakekua Bay and sent a British sailor ashore named John Young, to determine whether the sister ship, the schooner , had arrived for its planned rendezvous. Young was detained by Kamehameha&#39;s men to prevent the Eleanora&#39;s Captain Simon Metcalfe from hearing the news of the destruction of the Fair American, and the death of Metcalfe&#39;s son, Thomas Humphrey Metcalfe, after the massacre at Olowalu. Young and Isaac Davis, the lone survivor of the Fair American, slowly adjusted to the island lifestyle. They instructed Hawaiians in the use of the captured cannon and muskets, becoming respected advisers to Kamehameha. In 1791 Spanish explorer Manuel Quimper visited on the ship .</p><br>
<h3>More visitors</h3><br>
<p>George Vancouver arrived in March 1792 to winter in the islands with a small fleet of British ships. He had been a young midshipman on Cook&#39;s fatal voyage 13 years earlier and commanded the party that attempted to recover Cook&#39;s remains. He avoided anchoring in Kealakekua Bay, but met some men in canoes who were interested in trading. The common request was for firearms, which Vancouver resisted. One included chief Kaʻiana, who would later turn against Kamehameha.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver suspected Kaiana intended to seize his ships, so left him behind and headed up the coast. There he was surprised to encounter a Hawaiian who in broken English introduced himself as "Jack", and told of traveling to America on a fur-trading ship. Through him, Vancouver met Keeaumoku Pāpaiahiahi, who gave him a favorable impression of Kamehameha (his son-in-law). He spent the rest of the winter in Oahu.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver returned in February 1793; this time he picked up Keeaumoku and anchored in Kealakekua Bay. When Kamehameha came to greet the ship, he brought John Young, now fluent in the Hawaiian language, as an interpreter. This greatly helped to develop a trusted trading relationship. The Hawaiians presented a war game, which was often part of the Makahiki celebration. Impressed by the warriors&#39; abilities, Vancouver fired off some fireworks at night to demonstrate his military technology. Vancouver presented some cattle which he had picked up in California. They were weak and barely alive, so he convinced Kamehameha to avoid killing them for ten years.</p><br>
<p>Scottish doctor James Lind had recommended the use of citrus juice to prevent scurvy on long voyages. The botanist Archibald Menzies had picked up some citrus fruit seeds in South Africa, and dropped them off here, so that future ships might be able to replenish their stocks at the Hawaiian islands.</p><br>
<p>Vancouver left in March 1793 after visiting the other islands to continue his expedition, and returned again January 13, 1794. He still hoped to broker a truce between Kamehameha and the other islands. His first step was to reconcile Kamehameha with Queen Kaahumanu.</p><br>
<p>He dropped off more cattle and sheep from California, and discovered a cow left the year before had delivered a calf. The cattle became feral and eventually became pests. They were not controlled until the "Hawaiian cowboys", known as the paniolo, were recruited.</p><br>
<p>The ship&#39;s carpenters instructed the Hawaiians and the British advisers how to build a 36 ft European-style ship, which they named the Britania. On February 25, 1794, Vancouver gathered leaders from around the island onto his ship and negotiated a treaty. Although this treaty was sometimes described as "ceding" Hawaii to Great Britain, the treaty was never ratified by the British parliament.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>For the next few years, Kamehameha was engaged in his war campaigns, and then spent his last years at Kamakahonu to the north. By this time other harbors such as Lahaina and Honolulu became popular with visiting ships. By 1804, the heiau was falling into disuse. In 1814, a British ship HMS Forester arrived in the midst of a mutiny. Otto von Kotzebue arrived in 1816 on a mission from the Russian Empire.</p><br>
<p>When Kamehameha I died in 1819, his oldest son Liholiho officially inherited the kingdom, calling himself Kamehameha II. His nephew Keaoua Kekuaokalani inherited the important military and religious post of guardian of Kūkailimoku. However, true power was held by Kamehameha&#39;s widow Queen Kaahumanu. She had been convinced by Vancouver and other visitors that the European customs should be adopted. In the Ai Noa she declared an end to the old Kapu system.</p><br>
<p>Kekuaokalani was outraged by this threat to the old traditions, which still were respected by most common people. He gathered religious supporters at Kaawaloa, threatening to take the kingdom by force, as happened 37 years earlier. After a failed attempt to negotiate peace, he marched his army north to meet Kalanimoku&#39;s troops who were gathered at Kamakahonu. They met in the Battle of Kuamoo. Both sides had muskets, but Kalanimoku had cannon mounted on double-hulled canoes. He devastated the fighters for the old religion, who still lie buried in the lava rock.</p><br>
<p>The wood Kii carvings were burned, and the temples fell into disrepair. A small Christian church was built in 1824 in Kaawaloa by the Hawaiian missionaries, and the narrow trail widened to a donkey cart road in the late 1820s, but the population declined due largely to introduced diseases and people shifted to other areas.</p><br>
<p>In 1825, Admiral Lord Byron (cousin of the famous poet) on the ship erected a monument to Cook and took away many of the old, sacred artifacts.</p><br>
<p>The last royalty known to live here was high chief Naihe, known as the "national orator," and his wife Chiefess Kapiolani, early converts to Christianity.</p><br>
<p>In 1829, she was saddened to see that the destruction of the temples included desecrating the bones of her ancestors at the Puuhonua o Hōnaunau.</p><br>
<p>She removed the remains of the old chiefs and hid them in the Pali Kapu O Keōua cliffs before ordering this last temple to be destroyed. The bones were later moved to the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii in 1858, under direction of King Kamehameha IV.</p><br>
<p>In 1839 a massive stone church was built just south of the bay. It fell into ruin, and a smaller building called Kahikolu Church was built in 1852. This also fell into ruin, but has been rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>In 1894 a wharf was constructed at the village at the south of the bay, now called Napoopoo. A steamer landed in the early 20th century when Kona coffee became a popular crop in the upland areas.</p><br>
<p>A large white stone monument was built on the north shore of the bay in 1874 on the order of Archibald Cleghorn and was deeded to the United Kingdom in 1877. The chain around the monument is supported by four cannon from the ship HMS Fantome; they were placed with their breaches embedded in the rock in 1876. It marks the approximate location of Cook&#39;s death. It is located at coordinates {{coord|19|28|52.7|N|155|56|0.4|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:US-HI|name=Captain James Cook Monument}}.</p><br>
<p>The Cook monument is unreachable by road; this remote location is accessible only by water or an hour-long hike along a moderately steep trail. Many visitors have rented kayaks and paddled across the bay, about 1.5 mi from its southern end. State conservation regulations prohibit kayaks, stand-up paddleboards, surfboards, and bodyboards from entering the bay unless part of a tour with a licensed local operator. The pier at Napoopoo can be accessed down a narrow road off the Hawaii Belt Road.</p><br>
<p>The beach sand was mostly removed by Hurricane Iniki in 1992. Boat tours are also available, leaving from Honokōhau harbor, Keauhou Bay, and the Kailua pier.</p><br>
<p>A short single-day eruption of Mauna Loa volcano took place underwater within Kealakekua Bay in 1877, and within a mile of the shoreline; curious onlookers approaching the area in boats reported unusually turbulent water and occasional floating blocks of hardened lava.</p><br>
<p>Hawaiian spinner dolphins frequent Kealakekua Bay, especially in the morning. The bay serves as a place for them to rest and feed, and as a nursery for mothers and their calves. Due to the calm water conditions, extensive coral reef, and thriving underwater life, Kealakekua Bay offers some of the best snorkeling and diving in Hawaii, especially in the shallow waters adjacent to the monument. The bay is a protected marine environment so visitors can snorkel but no fishing is allowed in this area.</p><br>
<p>About 180 acres around the bay was designated a State Historic Park in 1967, and it was added as a Historic District to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 as site 73000651. The 315 acre of the bay itself were declared a Marine Life Conservation District in 1969.</p><br>
<p>A narrow one-lane road to the south leads to Puuhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park, which contains more historic sites.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>*Mark Twain&#39;s Roughing It mentions Kealakekua Bay and the killing of Captain Cook in Chapter 71.</p><br>
<p>*In Arthur C. Clarke&#39;s book Rendezvous with Rama, Kealakekua Bay is mentioned as a place where Bill Norton, the Commander of the Space Survey Vessel Endeavour, visited.</p><br>
<p>*The 1933 song "My Little Grass Shack in Kealakekua, Hawaii" mentions the state fish which can be found in the bay: the Humuhumunukunukuapuaa (Reef triggerfish).</p><br>
<p>The Tower Building of the Little Rock Arsenal, also known as the Main Building of the USA Arsenal at Little Rock, or Headquarters Building of the Little Rock Barracks, is the home of the MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History. It is also a part of the MacArthur Park Historic District, in Little Rock, Arkansas.</p><br>
<p>Built between 1840 and 1841, it was part of Little Rock&#39;s first USA military installation. Since decommissioning, the building has housed two local museums. It was home to the Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities from 1942 to 1997 and the MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History since 2001. It has also housed the Little Rock Æsthetic Club since 1894. The building receives its name from its distinct octagonal tower. Besides being the last remaining structure of the original USA military installation and one of the oldest buildings in central Arkansas, it was also the birthplace of General Douglas MacArthur, who became the supreme commander of USA forces in the South Pacific during World War II. It was also the starting place of the Camden Expedition during the American Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>The building and the surrounding park were used for many public purposes throughout the early 20th century. The Tower Building served as headquarters for the United Confederate Veterans Reunion, May 15–18, 1911. Over 106,000 Civil War veterans, the largest popular gathering in the history of the city up to that time, attended and were housed in the building or camped in the park, which had also become a popular camping area. Later the building served as an armory for the Arkansas National Guard. In 1912, the second floor of the Tower Building became Little Rock&#39;s first public library. In 1917, Little Rock built a fire station in the park. A band shell named for H. H. Foster also was built in the park during this time, but no longer exists. In 1936, Works Progress Administration built the Museum of Fine Arts, now called the Arkansas Arts Center, just south of the Tower Building.</p><br>
<p>The arsenal was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><br>
<p>In 1942, the Tower Building was renovated due to the efforts of the Æsthetic Club, Little Rock philanthropist Frederick W. Allsop, and the Works Progress Administration. It became the new home of the Arkansas Museum of Natural History and Antiquities, which had been located in Little Rock City Hall. The museum remained in the tower building for approximately fifty-five years. The area surrounding the Tower Building had been known as Arsenal Park when the first decommissioned and then later renamed City Park. Due to the efforts of Bernie Babcock, however, the city finally named it MacArthur Park in 1942 in honor of Douglas MacArthur.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the Museum of Science and Natural History merged with the Little Rock Childrens Museum, which had been located in Union Station, to form the Arkansas Museum of Discovery. The new museum was relocated to a historic building in the Little Rock River Market District. The MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History opened on May 19, 2001, in the Tower Building. The new museums goal is to educate and inform visitors about the military history of Arkansas, preserve the Tower Building, honor servicemen and servicewomen of the United States and commemorate the birthplace of Douglas MacArthur.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>The arsenal was constructed at the request of Governor James S. Conway in response to the perceived dangers of frontier life and concerns over possible confrontations with Native Americans who were passing through the state on their way to established Indian Territory following their removal from the southern United States. Thirty-six acres were appropriated on the outskirts of Little Rock by Major Robert B. Lee of the USA Army. The land had been previously used as a racetrack by the local jockey club. John Wormley Walker, a builder for the Federal Government, supervised the construction. Originally $14,000 was allocated for the construction of the arsenal, but proved inadequate. The budget was later increased to $30,000. Work began on the Tower Building in 1840, and it was the first permanent structure of the arsenal to be built. Being originally constructed to store ammunition, the building was designed with 3 ft exterior walls. The original plans called for it to be built of stone, however, masonry was used instead. The Arkansas Gazette referred to the structure as "A splendid specimen of masonry".</p><br>
<h3>American Civil War</h3><br>
<p>For several years the arsenal, which was owned by the federal government, served as a simple arms depot and was staffed with only a handful of soldiers. But in November 1860, with the American Civil War on the horizon, a company of the Second United States Artillery, consisting of sixty-five men, was transferred to Little Rock under the command of Captain James Totten. On January 15, 1861, the state legislature decided to hold a referendum to determine if a state convention should be held to consider the issue of secession and to elect delegates to such a convention. It was planned for February 18; however, events at the arsenal, would not wait. On January 28, then Governor Henry M. Rector informed Captain Totten that he and his soldiers would be "permitted to remain in the possession of the Federal officers until the State, by authority of the people, shall have determined to sever their connection with the General Government," Totten responded to this by telling the Governor that his orders came from the United States Government and began a desperate but ultimately futile dispatch of letters and telegrams asking for reinforcements, although rumors were widely spread that they were already coming. The first telegraph wire to span between Little Rock and Memphis had recently been completed. Local attorney John M. Harrell was asked to compose the first telegraph dispatched from Arkansas&#39;s capital. In his message, Harrell reported unconfirmed rumors that more federal troops had been sent to reinforce the Little Rock Arsenal.</p><br>
<p>The United States troops at the outposts of the western frontier of the state and in the Indian nation have all been recalled from winter quarters to reinforce the garrison at Fort Smith. The garrison at Fort Smith had been previously transferred to the United States Arsenal in this city (Little Rock). The arsenal is one of the richest depositories of military stores in the United States and is supposed to be the ultimate destination of the troppsordered from the frontier.</p><br>
<p>The item was intended simply as a piece of news, but telegraph lines quickly spread the news throughout the state, fueling procession sentiment. The rumor was interpreted by some Arkansans as a call from the governor to assemble to help expel the federal troops from the arsenal. By February 5, six militia units, consisting of 1,000 men, with a guarantee that the numbers could be increased to 5,000 if the situations deemed it necessary, had assembled in Little Rock. Governor Rector vehemently denied ordering the troops to assemble or giving any order at all in connection with the troops. Faced with the fact that the military had assembled believing they were following his orders and the consensus of the citizens of Little Rock against any armed conflict between the civilian army and federal troops, Governor Rector was forced to take control of the situation. On February 6, he sent a formal demand for surrender of the arsenal to Captain Totten,</p><br>
<p>This movement is prompted by the feeling that pervades the citizens of this State that in the present emergency the arms and munitions of war in the Arsenal should be under the control of the State authorities, in order to their security. This movement, although not authorized by me, has assumed such an aspect that it becomes my duty, as the executive of this Sate, to interpose my official authority to prevent a collision between the people of the State and the Federal troops under your command. I therefore demand in the name of the State the delivery of the possession of the Arsenal and munitions of war under your charge to the State authorities, to be held subject to the action of the convention to be held on the 4th of March next.</p><br>
<p>Perhaps because Abraham Lincoln had not yet been inaugurated as President, Captain Totten received no instructions from his superiors and was forced to withdraw his troops. He agreed to surrender the arsenal as long as the governor agreed to three provisions:</p><br>
<p>The governor would take possession of the arsenal in the name of the United States.</p><br>
<p>The soldiers would be allowed safe passage in any direction carrying any personal and public property besides munitions of war.</p><br>
<p>The soldiers would be allowed to march away as men leaving under orders, not as conquered and surrendering soldiers.</p><br>
<p>On the morning of February 8, 1861, Rector and Totten signed an agreement placing the arsenal in the hands of state officials. That afternoon, the citizen militia marched to the arsenal with Governor Rector at its head. All of the federal troops had left at this point, except Totten who had stayed behind to listen to the Governor&#39;s speech and to hand the arsenal over in person.</p><br>
<p>The Little Rock Arsenal was classified in 1860 as an "arsenal of deposit," meaning that it was simply a warehouse for the storage of weapons intended for the use of the state militia in times of crisis. Thus there were no substantial operations for ordnance fabrication or repairs, nor for the manufacture of cartridges at the time the Arsenal fell into State hands. Most of these operations were started from scratch through the efforts of the Arkansas Military Board.</p><br>
<p>Inside the Little Rock Arsenal after its seizure in February, 1861, the Confederates inventoried some 10,247 weapons, 250,000 musket cartridges, and 520,000 percussion caps, as well as the four bronze cannon of Tottens battery. Long arms in the Arsenals inventory consisted of:</p><br>
<p>Of this number, approximately 9600 weapons were serviceable, or ready-for-issue. Note there were only 1,364 percussion weapons available. Disposition of the weapons found in the Arsenal is somewhat sketchy, but from various records it can be surmised that the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th Arkansas Infantry Regiments, mustered in June, 1861, were issued M1816/M1822.69 caliber flintlocks. The 9th and 10th Arkansas, four companies of Kellys 9th Arkansas Battalion, and the 3rd Arkansas Cavalry Regiment were issued flintlock Halls Rifles. The units comprising the infantry force of Van Dorn&#39;s Army of the West were the 1st and 2nd Arkansas Mounted Rifles were also armed with M1822 flintlocks from the Little Rock Arsenal. By the time the 11th and 12th Arkansas Infantry Regiments mustered in at Little Rock, the supply of arms had been almost completely exhausted, and only old "junker" weapons were left.</p><br>
<p>Most of the equipment, arms, and machinery at the Little Rock Arsenal was removed to east of the Mississippi River by order of Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn in April and May 1862, and accountability for it is lost at that point. By all appearances, the equipment was sent down the river to Napoleon, Arkansas, and from there to Jackson Mississippi, where it was probably destroyed during the Vicksburg campaign in the early summer of 1863.</p><br>
<p>Major General Thomas C. Hindman, sent to command the district of Arkansas in May, 1862, found the state nearly destitute of military material. Hindman established another armory at Arkadelphia, and revived the Little Rock Arsenal as a collection point and depot for armaments and ammunition manufacture for small arms. Hindman recorded:</p><br>
<p>"Machinery was made for manufacturing percussion caps and small arms, and both were turned out in small quantity, but of excellent quality. Lead mines were opened and worked, and a chemical laboratory was established and successfully operated in aid of the Ordnance Department and in the manufacture of calomel, castor oil, spirits of nitre, the various tinctures of iron, and other valuable medicines. Most of these works were located at or near Arkadelphia on the Ouachita River, 75 miles south from Little Rock. The tools, machinery, and the material were gathered piecemeal or else made by hand labor. Nothing of this sort had been before attempted on Government account in Arkansas to my knowledge, except for the manufacture of small arms, the machinery for which was taken away by General Van Dorn and there was neither capital nor sufficient enterprise among the citizens to engage in such undertakings� A further supply, along with lead and caps, was procured from the citizens of Little Rock and vicinity by donation, purchases, and impressments.</p><br>
<p>This ammunition, and that which I brought with me, was rapidly prepared for use at the Laboratory established at the Little Rock Arsenal for that purpose. As illustrating as the pitiful scarcity of material in the country, the fact may be stated that it was found necessary to use public documents of the State Library for cartridge paper. Gunsmiths were employed or conscripted, tools purchased or impressed, and the repair of the damaged guns I brought with me and about an equal number found at Little Rock commenced at once. But, after inspecting the work and observing the spirit of the men I decided that a garrison 500 strong could hold out against Fitch and that I would lead the remainder - about 1500 - to Gen&#39;l Rust as soon as shotguns and rifles could be obtained from Little Rock instead of pikes and lances, with which most of them were armed. Two days elapsed before the change could be effected."</p><br>
<p>The Confederate ordnance establishment at Little Rock was reactivated in August, 1862. Looking around for a suitable person to head this activity, General Hindman turned to the Confederate Navy and borrowed Lieutenant John W. Dunnington. Lt. Dunnington was the commander of the gunboat C.S.S. Pontchartrain, which had been brought to Little Rock in hopes of converting it to an ironclad. Dunnington was selected to head the ordnance works at Little Rock, and although he continued to draw his pay from the Confederate Navy Department, he was placed in charge of all Confederate ordnance activities (which included artillery functions) there with the rank of lieutenant colonel.</p><br>
<p>Lt. Col. Dunnington&#39;s "Returns for the month of August, 1862, at Little Rock Arsenal, C.S.A.," are found in Vol. 149, Chapter IV of the "Captured Rebel Ordnance Records," and are most enlightening as to the scope of Confederate ordnance activities at Little Rock during this crucial time. According to Dunnington, "When I assumed command at this Post, all material had been removed to Arkadelphia. There were no persons employed. No shops were open for repair of arms or for fabricating ammunition. Material, tools, etc., had to be procured as well as the employment of laborers. Work commenced the last part of the month."</p><br>
<p>The military force at Little Rock under Dunnington&#39;s command consisted of four officers: himself, Major John B. Lockman, Captain C.C. Green, and 2nd Lt. W.W. Murphy. In addition to these, he had 20 enlisted men and a civilian force composed of a foreman, 2 clerks, 3 gunsmiths for repairing small arms, a laboratorian, 26 laborers in the ammunition laboratory, and a carpenter for making packing boxes.</p><br>
<p>During the month of August, 1862, the following work was performed:</p><br>
<p>"Fabricated: one pair of musket bullet moulds; 10,000 buck & ball shot cartridges; repaired: 750 muskets, shotguns, and rifles; received and repaired: ordnance stores and ordnances; performed: guard, office, and police duties; inspected: Posts at Camden and Arkadelphia."</p><br>
<p>Lt. Col. Dunnington continued to build up his works at Little Rock until November 1862, when Captain Sanford C. Faulkner (composer of The Arkansas Traveler) was placed in charge of the Arsenal. Dunnington presumably returned to his naval duties and the Pontchartrain.</p><br>
<p>A "Summary of the Work Done for November, 1862, Little Rock Arsenal" shows:</p><br>
<p>Fabrication:</p><br>
<p>Repaired:</p><br>
<p>Received & Issued:</p><br>
<p>Repaired and painted:</p><br>
<p>Performed:</p><br>
<p>Perhaps the most illuminating points of the above "Summary of Work" and those for following months are that the standard ammunition made was."buck & ball", indicating that the.69 caliber smoothbores and shotguns remained the predominant caliber weapon in use, and of this, nearly one sixth or more of all small arms ammunition was still for flintlock weapons, indicating that no less than a sixth of the Confederate troops in this vicinity were still armed with obsolete flintlock weapons.</p><br>
<p>The "Summaries of Work done at Little Rock Arsenal, C.S.A." continue at about the same pace and scale from August 1862 until August 1863. Appended to the "Summary" for August, 1863 is the ominous notation, "During the last week in the month, nearly all stores at the Arsenal have been packed and sent to Arkadelphia, in obedience to orders from Chief of Ordnance, District of Arkansas." This then marks the beginning of the evacuation of ordnance activities from Little Rock, with the city being surrendered to the advancing Federal troops of Frederick Steele&#39;s Arkansas Expedition on September 11, 1863.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, after Little Rock fell to the Union Army and the arsenal had been recaptured, General Fredrick Steele marched 8,500 troops from the arsenal beginning the Camden Expedition.</p><br>
<h3>Brooks-Baxter War</h3><br>
<p>In 1874, the arsenal was briefly seized once more by Joseph Brooks loyalists.</p><br>
<h3>Decommissioning</h3><br>
<p>In 1873, the arsenal was renamed Little Rock Barracks and the main building used as married officers&#39; quarters. The building was drastically altered the inside and outside. Prior to renovation, a rear basement door provided the only entrance, while the tower served as a hoist to move munitions between floors. By 1868, front and rear porches had been added to the building, as well as interior walls and stairs, some of which remain today, including the central staircase. In 1880, Douglas MacArthur was born on the northwest upper floor of this building while his father, USA Army Captain Arthur MacArthur, was stationed there.</p><br>
<p>In the 1880s, the federal government began closing many small arsenals around the country in favor of smaller ones built near railroads for quick deployment. The arsenal commander received word from Washington that the Little Rock site must be abandoned "not later than October 1, 1890."</p><br>
<h3>Æsthetic Club</h3><br>
<p>In 1894 the Little Rock Æsthetic Club, one of the oldest womens societies west of the Mississippi River, moved into the Tower Building. This was prompted due to increased membership and a need for larger, more permanent quarters. The previous year, club members working with womens organizations throughout the state, raised money to furnish the Arkansas Building of the Columbian Exposition at The Chicago Worlds Fair. At the fairs conclusion, artifacts from the exhibit were displayed in the Tower Building, with the Æsthetic Club invited to meet in the "Columbian Room."</p><br>
<p>Except for Æsthetic Club meetings, the Tower Building remained largely unoccupied for almost fifty years and suffered significant deterioration. The Æsthetic Club provided much-needed financial support during the period and even paid the electric bill during the Great Depression. The Æsthetic Club is still headquartered in the Tower Building.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The MacArthur Museum of Arkansas Military History, named for General Douglas MacArthur who was born in what is now the museum when it was military barracks is located in the Tower Building. The museum opened in May 2001 and as of 2018 had been visited by more than 500,000 people. It is operated by the Little Rock Department of Parks and Recreation and tells the stories of Arkansas&#39; soldiers from the Civil War through Vietnam via artifacts, photographs, weapons and other ephemera. One of its galleries is focused on the Battle of Little Rock.</p><br>
<p>Thorncrown Chapel is a chapel located in Eureka Springs, Arkansas, designed by E. Fay Jones, and constructed in 1980. The design recalls the Prairie School of architecture popularized by Frank Lloyd Wright, with whom Jones had apprenticed. The chapel was commissioned by Jim Reed, a retired schoolteacher, who envisioned a non-denominational pilgrimage chapel set apart for meditation. The design of Thorncrown Chapel was inspired by Sainte-Chapelle, a Gothic church in Paris, France, pierced by numerous stained glass windows. It held some of King Louis&#39;s medieval Christian relics, including the Crown of Thorns believed worn by Christ. This relic inspired the name of the American chapel.</p><br>
<p>The chapels unusual artistry has been recognized. It was selected for the 2006 Twenty-five Year Award by the American Institute of Architects. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000, It was included in Budget Travels list of "12 Most Beautiful Churches in America" and Bored Pandas list of "50 Most Extraordinary Churches Of The World."</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Resident Jim Reed, a retired schoolteacher, bought land in 1971 where he intended to commission a non-denominational pilgrimage chapel near Eureka Springs, Arkansas. He wanted it to be set apart from the city for meditation in the foothill, forested landscape. He commissioned architect E. Fay Jones to design the project. Jones said he was inspired in his design of Thorncrown Chapel by Sainte-Chapelle, a Gothic church in Paris, France. It is known for its jewel-like interior, the result of its many narrow, stained-glass windows and different types of glass that allow light into the structure.</p><br>
<h2>Structure and status</h2><br>
<p>The chapel stands 48 ft high, 24 ft wide, and 60 ft long. It has 425 windows, which add up to 6,000 square feet (approximately 560 square meters) of glass. During the design process, Jones decided that in order to preserve the site&#39;s natural setting, no structural element could be larger than what two men could carry through the woods. The structure was constructed using organic materials indigenous to northwestern Arkansas, including pressure-treated Southern pine and flagstone for the floor and surrounding wall. The small ornamental roof skylight was later enlarged to provide additional natural lighting throughout the chapel.</p><br>
<p>The chapel looks like an open-air structure, but is, in fact, an enclosed air-conditioned space that seats up to 100 people. It is open daily from March to December with free admission. It is closed January and February except for weddings and other special events. Non-denominational church services are held in the adjoining worship center on Sundays from April to December.</p><br>
<h2>Honors and awards</h2><br>
<p>The chapel was selected by the American Institute of Architects for the 2006 Twenty-five Year Award, recognizing works whose value has continued. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000, a status not granted to buildings fewer than fifty years old unless exceptionally significant.</p><br>
<p>Budget Travel included the chapel in its list of "12 Most Beautiful Churches in America" Bored Panda has it on the list of "50 Most Extraordinary Churches Of The World."</p><br>
<p>F.D. Roosevelt State Park is a 9,049 acre Georgia state park located near Pine Mountain and Warm Springs. The park is named for former USA President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who sought a treatment for his paralytic illness in nearby Warm Springs at the Little White House. The park is located along the Pine Mountain Range. The western portion of the park, formerly named Pine Mountain State Park, was named a National Historic Landmark in 1997. F.D. Roosevelt State Park is Georgia&#39;s largest state park.</p><br>
<p>Several structures in the park were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in the Great Depression, including a stone swimming pool and Roosevelts favorite picnic spot at Dowdells Knob, overlooking the valley below. President Roosevelt would take polio patients with depression along on picnics at Dowdell&#39;s Knob.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The region containing the modern-day park was inhabited by the Creek Nation until ceded under the Treaties of 1825 and 1826, which granted the territories between the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers to the State of Georgia. An influx of settlers established the town of Kings Gap, named after King&#39;s Trading Post located near the modern-day Liberty Bell Pool. The town eventually vanished by the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1924, Franklin Delano Roosevelt first visited the warm springs located near the towns of Warm Springs and Bullochville. He came to the springs seeking relief from the symptoms of the paralytic illness he had contracted three years earlier. In 1927, Roosevelt and others established the Warm Springs Foundation, later known as the Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, which established therapeutic programs utilizing the area&#39;s mineral springs. Since then, the institute has developed into a complex of facilities helping those with disabilities.</p><br>
<p>Just prior to being elected president of the United States in 1932, Roosevelt built a residence nearby which would come to be known as the Little White House. After his election to the presidency, he spearheaded the establishment of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). It was this organization which, in 1935, established a camp near the modern-day park entrance on Highway 354. From this camp, the young men of the CCC constructed much of the present state park, including the Liberty Bell Pool, the Roosevelt Lodge, several cabins, the 15 acre Lake Delanor and its companion, the 25 acre Lake Franklin. Because of the well-preserved CCC design, layout, and buildings of the western half of the park, and for its association with Roosevelt, the area was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1997.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>F.D. Roosevelt State Park is Georgia&#39;s largest state park. It is geologically a feature of the Piedmont Plateau, not the Appalachian Mountains farther north.</p><br>
<p>Dowdell&#39;s Knob is the highest point in F. D. Roosevelt State Park, at 1,395 feet. The knob was named for two pioneer Harris County settlers: Lewis & James Dowdell.</p><br>
<p>The park contains the 23 mile long Pine Mountain Trail, a scenic nature path that winds through both hardwood and pine forests, featuring hickory and several species of oak; forest undergrowth includes buckeye, pawpaw, azalea, blueberry and huckleberry. The trail has thirteen primitive back country campsites for backpackers. The Pine Mountain Trail is wholly maintained by the volunteers of the Pine Mountain Trail Association. In addition, the park contains two stocked fishing lakes and a historic trading post. There is a clump of surviving resistant chestnut trees in the park.</p><br>
<h2>Recent events</h2><br>
<p>On April 12, 2007, the 62nd anniversary of Roosevelts death, a 1,200-pound bronze statue was unveiled at Dowdells Knob. The statue depicts Roosevelt sitting on his removable car seat and wearing his leg braces. The statue, commissioned by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources, was created by Atlanta sculptor Martin Dawe.</p><br>
<p>During the 2011 Super Outbreak, an EF2 tornado caused severe damage to the park, especially in the campgrounds. It was estimated that 30% of the structures in one of the park&#39;s group campground areas were destroyed.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>105 Tent/Trailer/RV Campsites</p><br>
<p>16 Backcountry Campsites</p><br>
<p>22 Cottages</p><br>
<p>2 Picnic Shelters</p><br>
<p>2 Group Camps</p><br>
<p>1 Group Shelter</p><br>
<p>1 Pioneer Campground</p><br>
<p>1 Public Swimming Pool</p><br>
<h2>Annual events</h2><br>
<p>Spring Backpacking Trip (March)</p><br>
<p>The Andersonville National Historic Site, located near Andersonville, Georgia, preserves the former Andersonville Prison , a Confederate prisoner-of-war camp during the final fourteen months of the American Civil War. Most of the site lies in southwestern Macon County, adjacent to the east side of the town of Andersonville. The site also contains the Andersonville National Cemetery and the National Prisoner of War Museum. The prison was created in February 1864 and served until April 1865.</p><br>
<p>The site was commanded by Captain Henry Wirz, who was tried and executed after the war for war crimes. The prison was overcrowded to four times its capacity, and had an inadequate water supply, inadequate food, and unsanitary conditions. Of the approximately 45,000 Union prisoners held at Camp Sumter during the war, nearly 13,000 (28%) died. The chief causes of death were scurvy, diarrhea, and dysentery.</p><br>
<h2>Conditions</h2><br>
<p>The prison, which opened in February 1864, originally covered about 16.5 acre of land enclosed by a 15 ft high stockade. In June 1864, it was enlarged to 26.5 acre. The stockade was rectangular, of dimensions 1,620 ft by 779 ft. There were two entrances on the west side of the stockade, known as "north entrance" and "south entrance". This allowed for a space of about 5 feet by 6 feet (1.5 x 2 m) for each prisoner.</p><br>
<h3>Descriptions of Andersonville</h3><br>
<p>Robert H. Kellogg, sergeant major in the 16th Regiment Connecticut Volunteers, described his entry as a prisoner into the prison camp, May 2, 1864:</p><br>
<p>As we entered the place, a spectacle met our eyes that almost froze our blood with horror, and made our hearts fail within us. Before us were forms that had once been active and erect;—stalwart men, now nothing but mere walking skeletons, covered with filth and vermin. Many of our men, in the heat and intensity of their feeling, exclaimed with earnestness. "Can this be hell?" "God protect us!" and all thought that he alone could bring them out alive from so terrible a place. In the center of the whole was a swamp, occupying about three or four acres of the narrowed limits, and a part of this marshy place had been used by the prisoners as a sink, and excrement covered the ground, the scent arising from which was suffocating. The ground allotted to our ninety was near the edge of this plague-spot, and how we were to live through the warm summer weather in the midst of such fearful surroundings, was more than we cared to think of just then.</p><br>
<p>Further descriptions of the camp can be found in the diary of Ransom Chadwick, a member of the 85th New York Infantry Regiment. Chadwick and his regimental mates were taken to the Andersonville Prison, arriving on April 30, 1864. An extensive and detailed diary was kept by John L. Ransom of his time as a prisoner at Andersonville.</p><br>
<p>Father Peter Whelan arrived on June 16, 1864, to muster the resources of the Catholic church and help provide relief to the prisoners.</p><br>
<h3>The dead line</h3><br>
<p>At Andersonville, a light fence known as "the dead line" was erected approximately inside the stockade wall. It demarcated a no-man&#39;s land that kept prisoners away from the wall, which was made of rough-hewn logs about high and stakes driven into the ground. Anyone crossing or even touching this "dead line" was shot without warning by sentries in the guard platforms (called "pigeon roosts") on the stockade. (It is considered possible, although not established, that the modern term deadline in the sense of a time limit derives from this.)</p><br>
<h3>Health problems</h3><br>
<p>At this stage of the war, Andersonville Prison was frequently under-supplied with food. By 1864, civilians in the Confederacy and soldiers of the Confederate Army were all struggling to obtain sufficient quantities of food. The shortage of fare was suffered by prisoners and Confederate personnel alike within the fort, but the prisoners received less than the guards. Unlike the captives, the guards did not become severely emaciated or suffer from scurvy as a consequence of vitamin C deficiency due to a lack of fresh fruits and vegetables in their diet. The poor diets and resulting scurvy was likely a major cause of the camps high mortality rate, as well as dysentery and typhoid fever. These resulted from filthy living conditions and poor sanitation. The only source of drinking water was a creek that also served as the camps latrine. It was filled at all times with fecal matter from thousands of sick and dying men. Even when sufficient quantities of supplies were available, they were of poor quality and inadequately prepared.</p><br>
<p>There were no new outfits given to prisoners, whose own clothing was often falling to pieces. In some cases, garments were taken from the dead. John McElroy, a prisoner at Andersonville, recalled "Before one was fairly cold his clothes would be appropriated and divided, and I have seen many sharp fights between contesting claimants".</p><br>
<p>Although the prison was surrounded by forest, very little wood was allowed to the prisoners for warmth or cooking. This, along with the lack of utensils, made it almost impossible for the prisoners to cook the meager food rations they received, which consisted of poorly milled cornflour. During the summer of 1864, Union prisoners suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease. Within seven months, about a third had died from dysentery and scurvy; they were buried in mass graves, the standard practice for Confederate prison authorities at Andersonville. In 1864, the Confederate Surgeon General asked Joseph Jones, an expert on infectious disease, to investigate the high mortality rate at the camp. He concluded that it was due to "scorbutic dysentery" (bloody diarrhea caused by vitamin C deficiency). In 2010, the historian Rosemary Drisdelle said that hookworm disease, a condition not recognized or known during the Civil War, was the major cause of many of the fatalities among the prisoners.</p><br>
<h3>Survival and social networks</h3><br>
<p>At the time of the Civil War, the concept of a prisoner of war camp was still new. It was not until 1863 that President Lincoln demanded a code of conduct be instituted to guarantee prisoners of war an entitlement to food and medical treatment and to protect them from enslavement, torture and murder. Andersonville did not provide its occupants with these guarantees; the prisoners at Andersonville, without any sort of law enforcement or protections, functioned more closely to a primitive society than a civil one. As such, survival often depended on the strength of a prisoner&#39;s social network within the prison. A prisoner with friends inside Andersonville was more likely to survive than a lone prisoner. Social networks provided prisoners with food, clothes, shelter, moral support, trading opportunities and protection against other prisoners. One study found that a prisoner having a strong social network within Andersonville "had a statistically significant positive effect on survival probabilities, and that the closer the ties between friends as measured by such identifiers as ethnicity, kinship and the same home town, the bigger the effect."</p><br>
<h3>The Raiders</h3><br>
<p>A group of prisoners, calling themselves the Andersonville Raiders, attacked their fellow inmates to steal food, jewellery, money and clothing. They were armed mostly with clubs and killed to get what they wanted. Another group started up, organized by Peter "Big Pete" Aubrey, to stop the larceny, calling themselves "Regulators". They caught nearly all of the Raiders, who were tried by the Regulators&#39; judge, Peter McCullough, and a jury, selected from a group of new prisoners. This jury, upon finding the Raiders guilty, set punishment that included running the gauntlet, being sent to the stocks, ball and chain and, in six cases, hanging.</p><br>
<p>The conditions were so poor that in July 1864, Captain Henry Wirz paroled five Union soldiers to deliver a petition signed by the majority of Andersonville&#39;s prisoners asking that the Union reinstate prisoner exchanges to relieve the overcrowding and allow prisoners to leave these terrible conditions. That request was denied. The petitioners, who had sworn to return, reported this to their comrades.</p><br>
<h3>Deaths</h3><br>
<p>During the war, 45,000 prisoners were received at Andersonville prison; of these nearly 13,000 died. The nature and causes of the deaths are a source of controversy among historians. Some contend that the deaths resulted from Confederate policy and were war crimes against Union prisoners, while others state that they resulted from disease promoted by severe overcrowding, the widespread food shortage in the Confederate States, the prison officials incompetence, and the breakdown of the prisoner exchange system, caused by the Confederacys refusal to include black Union troops in the exchanges. The stockade became severely overcrowded.</p><br>
<p>During the war, disease was the primary cause of death in both armies. Infectious disease was a chronic problem, due to poor sanitation in regular as well as prison camps.</p><br>
<h3>Dorence Atwater</h3><br>
<p>A young Union prisoner, Dorence Atwater, was chosen to record the names and numbers of the dead at Andersonville, for use by the Confederacy and the federal government after the war ended. He believed, correctly, the federal government would never see the list. Therefore, he sat next to Henry Wirz, who was in charge of the prison pen, and secretly kept his own list among other papers. When Atwater was released, he put the list in his bag and took it through the lines without being caught. It was published by the New York Tribune when Horace Greeley, the paper&#39;s owner, learned the federal government had refused the list and given Atwater much grief. Atwater believed that the commanding officer Wirz had been trying to ensure that Union prisoners would be rendered unfit to fight if they survived the prison.</p><br>
<h3>Newell Burch</h3><br>
<p>Prisoner of war (POW) Newell Burch also recorded Andersonville&#39;s poor conditions in his diary. A member of the 154th New York Volunteer Infantry, Logan was captured on the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg; he was first imprisoned at Belle Isle in Richmond, Virginia and then Andersonville. He is credited with having been the longest-held Union prisoner of war during the Civil War, having survived a total of 661 days in Confederate hands. His diary is in the collection of the Dunn County Historical Society in Menomonie, Wisconsin; a mimeographed copy is held by the Wisconsin Historical Society.</p><br>
<h3>Prisoner population</h3><br>
<h2>Escapes</h2><br>
<p>Planning an escape from this camp was routine among the thousands of prisoners. Most men formed units to burrow out of the camp using tunnels. The locations of the tunnels would aim towards nearby forests fifty feet from the wall. Once out, escape was nearly impossible due to the poor health of prisoners. Prisoners caught trying to escape were denied rations, chain ganged, or killed. Playing dead was another method of escape. The death rate of the camp being around a hundred per day made disposing of bodies a relaxed procedure by the guards. Prisoners would pretend to be dead and carried out to the row of dead bodies outside of the walls. As soon as night fell the men would get up and run. Once Wirz learned of this practice he ordered an examination by surgeons on all bodies taken out of the camp.</p><br>
<p>Confederate records show that 351 prisoners (about 0.7% of all inmates) escaped, though many were recaptured. The US Army lists 32 as returning to Union lines; of the rest, some likely simply returned to civilian life without notifying the military, while others probably died.</p><br>
<h2>Confederacy&#39;s offer to release prisoners</h2><br>
<p>In the latter part of the summer of 1864, the Confederacy offered to conditionally release prisoners if the Union would send ships to retrieve them (Andersonville is inland, with access possible only via rail and road). In the autumn of 1864, after the Battle of Atlanta, all the prisoners who were well enough to be moved were sent to Florence Stockade (near Florence, South Carolina) and Camp Lawton (near Millen, Georgia). At Millen, better arrangements prevailed, and prisoners were transported by rail to the port of Savannah. After General William Tecumseh Sherman began his march to the sea and destroyed Millen, the remaining prisoners were returned to Andersonville.</p><br>
<h2>Liberation</h2><br>
<p>Andersonville Prison was liberated by the Union Army in May 1865, with the prisoners inside being found and described as "human skeletons amid hellish scenes of desolation".</p><br>
<h2>Trial</h2><br>
<p>After the war, Henry Wirz, commandant of the inner stockade at Camp Sumter, was tried by a military tribunal on charges of war crimes. The trial was presided over by Union General Lew Wallace and featured chief Judge Advocate General (JAG) prosecutor Norton Parker Chipman.</p><br>
<p>A number of former prisoners testified about conditions at Andersonville, many accusing Wirz of specific acts of cruelty. The court also considered official correspondence from captured Confederate records. Perhaps the most damaging was a letter to the Confederate surgeon general by James Jones, who in 1864 was sent by Richmond to investigate conditions at Camp Sumter. Jones had been appalled by what he found, and reported he vomited twice and contracted influenza from the single hour he&#39;d toured the camp. His graphically detailed report to his superiors all but closed the case for the prosecution.</p><br>
<p>Wirz presented evidence that he had pleaded to Confederate authorities to try to get more food and that he had tried to improve the conditions for the prisoners inside. He was found guilty, and sentenced to death. On November 10, 1865, he was hanged. Wirz was one of three men executed after the war for war crimes and the only Confederate official; the others were guerrillas Champ Ferguson and Henry C. Magruder. The revelation of the prisoners&#39; sufferings was one of the factors that affected public opinion in the North regarding the South after the close of the Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Contrary to common belief, Wirz was not the only person prosecuted for his actions at Andersonville. James Duncan, who had worked in the quartermaster&#39;s office at Camp Sumter, was convicted of manslaughter for allegedly withholding food from some of the prisoners. Duncan had previously been called as a defense witness for Wirz, but was arrested when he arrived to give evidence.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>In 1890, the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), Department of Georgia, bought the site of Andersonville Prison through membership and subscriptions. It found that as their number was growing less year by year, and as it required a great deal of money to keep up the place, it would be better for them to offer it to the Woman&#39;s Relief Corps (WRC), the auxiliary to the GAR.</p><br>
<p>When the WRC was in annual session in St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1896, representatives of the Georgia GAR came before them, and offering the old prison, asked them to accept the gift and keep it from desecration. The women accepted it as a sacred trust, and immediately appointed Lizabeth A. Turner, as chairman of a board to beautify the grounds and make a park of them. A house for a caretaker was needed, and as the women did not want to build it within the old stockade, more land was purchased making the acreage within the enclosure about 87 acres. A ten-room house was erected, a caretaker installed, and then the tedious process of making a park was begun. Bermuda grass was planted root by root, a pear and pecan orchard set out, and a rose garden planted, with rose bushes sent from almost every state in the Union. Several states were given ground upon which to erect monuments to their dead soldiers. These were Massachusetts, Ohio, Michigan, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin. Turner having died while in discharge of her duty, the WRC also erected a monument to her memory in the park.</p><br>
<p>In 1910, the site was donated by the WRC to the federal government. In the following year, the memorial tablet set up by the donors was unveiled. Upon the tablet are the names of the incorporators of the WRC as well as the names of the Board of Trustees for 1909-10, and the names of the committee on transfer to the government.</p><br>
<h2>National Prisoner of War Museum</h2><br>
<p>The National Prisoner of War Museum opened in 1998 as a memorial to all American prisoners of war. Exhibits use art, photographs, displays, and video presentations to depict the capture, living conditions, hardships, and experiences of American prisoners of war in all periods. The museum also serves as the park&#39;s visitor center.</p><br>
<h2>Andersonville National Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery is the final resting place for the Union prisoners who died while being held at Camp Sumter/Andersonville as POWs. The prisoners&#39; burial ground at Camp Sumter has been made a national cemetery. It contains 13,714 graves, of which 921 are marked "unknown".</p><br>
<p>As a National Cemetery, it is also used as a burial place for more recent veterans and their dependents.</p><br>
<p>Visitors can walk the 26.5 acre site of Camp Sumter, which has been outlined with double rows of white posts. Two sections of the stockade wall have been reconstructed: the north gate and the northeast corner.</p><br>
<h2>Depictions</h2><br>
<p>Andersonville (1955) is a novel by MacKinlay Kantor concerning the Andersonville prison. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1956.</p><br>
<p>The Andersonville Trial (1970), a PBS television adaptation of a 1959 Broadway play. It depicts the 1865 trial of Andersonville commandant Henry Wirz.</p><br>
<p>The Italian western comics series “Tex” includes a three-volumes episode set in the imaginary prisoner-of-war camp Anderville during the American civil war, which is based upon Andersonville.</p><br>
<p>The TV movie Andersonville (1996), directed by John Frankenheimer, tells the story of the notorious Confederate prison camp.</p><br>
<p>Max R. Termans Hirams Honor: Reliving Private Terman&#39;s Civil War (2009, Hillsboro, KS: TESA Books, ), is an historical novel.</p><br>
<p>A novel written in 2014 by Tracy Groot entitled The Sentinels of Andersonville depicts some of the Historical players such as Capt. Henry Wirz and General John Winder and fictional prisoners in Andersonville Prison as rebel neighbors, attempting to help the prisoners, were vilified by the town of Americus, GA.</p><br>
<h3>Monuments</h3><br>
<p>Westminster Hall and Burying Ground is a graveyard and former church located at 519 West Fayette Street  in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. It is currently part of the grounds of the University of Maryland&#39;s School of Law. It occupies the southeast corner of West Fayette and North Greene Street on the west side of downtown Baltimore. It sits across from the Baltimore VA hospital and is the burial site of Edgar Allan Poe  and several politicians and military officials. The complex was declared a national historic district in 1974.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The graveyard was established in January 1787 by the First Presbyterian Church of Baltimore, from land on the westside of old Baltimore Town purchased by a committee of noted laymen consisting of William Smith, John Boyd, and William Patterson (locally prominent merchant, civic activist, owner of future Patterson Park, and father of noted Baltimore socialite/debutante Elizabeth ("Betsy") Patterson, (1785–1879), who married Jerome Bonaparte in 1803, brother of the French Emperor Napoleon I) from Col. John Eager Howard, (1752–1827), former commander of the famous "Maryland Line" regiment of the Continental Army in the American Revolution. Col. Howard owned the estate and mansion of "Belvidere", in what was called "Howard&#39;s Woods", north of Baltimore Town (later to become the neighborhood of Mount Vernon-Belvedere, and the site of the landmark Washington Monument). First Presbyterian, a congregation of socially and economically elite local Presbyterians and Reformed Protestants, then was located in downtown Baltimore since its founding in 1761 at the northwest corner of East Fayette Street at North Street (later Guilford Avenue) in a landmark twin-spired Georgian architecture-Federal style architecture structure from 1790 to 1795. Over the next 60 years, the "Burying Grounds" (or cemetery) became the final resting place for many important and influential merchants, politicians, statesmen, and dozens of veterans (officers and soldiers) of the American Revolutionary War and War of 1812 who were citizens of the burgeoning and soon-to-be, the third largest city in America – Baltimore.</p><br>
<p>In July 1852, Westminster Presbyterian Church was erected overtop the graveyard, its brick piers straddling gravestones and burial vaults to create what later Baltimoreans referred to as the "catacombs." For years, it was thought that the Gothic Revival-style Westminster Presbyterian Church was built in response to a new city ordinance prohibiting cemeteries that were not adjacent to a religious structure. Research in the early 1980s by historian Michael Franch found no such ordinance—and revealed a more complex motive: The congregation hoped that the new expansion church would serve Baltimore&#39;s growing "West End"—new churches were then springing up in every corner of the city in response to a dramatic increase in population—and provide protection to an aging, old-fashioned, 18th Century-style "burying ground" that few saw as an appropriate resting place for the more up-to-date 19th Century.</p><br>
<p>Westminster Presbyterian Church lived up to its promise and ministry for several decades, but suffered a dramatic loss of congregants by the early 20th century who were moving to the outer city and its suburbs and joining additional Presbyterian and other congregations there. Even First Presbyterian and the Franklin Street congregations eventually merged in 1974, (now known as "First and Franklin Street Presbyterian Church") moving to the First Church building at the corner of Park Avenue and West Madison Streets, with the old Franklin Street building now being used by a fundamentalist Protestant congregation that however takes good care of its historic building. Revived in the 1920s by a number of new active members, the congregation continued until 1977 when the Westminster Presbyterian congregation was disbanded/disorganized and historical assets were reverted to the local Presbytery of Baltimore and arrangements were made when care of the church building and premises was assumed by the University of Marylands School of Law, which occupies the rest of the square block to the south, southeast and east bounded by West Baltimore, North Paca, West Fayette and North Greene streets. The School of Laws city block campus is also surrounded by the urban neighborhood of the other buildings, facilities, medical center, parking garages and public squares of the various graduate schools of the University of Maryland at Baltimore&#39;s westside/downtown campus, founded in 1807. Under the auspices of the newly organized, non-profit "Westminster Preservation Trust", the "burying grounds" were cleaned up and the church was renovated for secular public use, now known as "Westminster Hall".</p><br>
<p>The restoration included the pipe organ that had been installed in the church by Johnson & Son in 1882 as their Opus 577. This restoration was done by Andover Organ Company. The historic Johnson & Son pipe organ was played in recital during the Organ Historical Society Convention in July 2024.The Pipe Organs of Baltimore July 21-25, 2024 OHS 67th Annual Convention. (Villanova: Organ Historical Society, 2024), pg. 119</p><br>
<p>Support and a listing has also been obtained from the Maryland Historical Trust and other heritage and tourism organizations such as the newly established efforts of the Baltimore National Heritage Area, with the National Park Service, with cooperation from the Maryland Historical Society, the Baltimore City Historical Society, Baltimore Heritage, Preservation Maryland, and the Office of Promotion and the Arts in the Mayor&#39;s Office of the City of Baltimore plus the Baltimore City Commission for Historical and Architectural Preservation. In 2006, the Westminster Preservation Trust installed more than 20 interpretive signs around the burying ground and catacombs to provide historical and biographical information on the area.</p><br>
<p>The site has been used in an episode of Creepy Canada, with paranormal investigators from discussing its possible haunting.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designation</h2><br>
<p>Westminster Hall and Burying Ground was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 17, 1974.</p><br>
<h2>Persons of note interred</h2><br>
<p>A number of famous Marylanders are interred here, including many Revolutionary patriots and veterans of the War of 1812. Other Marylanders include:</p><br>
<p>James Calhoun (1743–1816), last Mayor of Baltimore Town and first Mayor of the City of Baltimore</p><br>
<p>James Morrison Harris (1817–1898), USA Representative</p><br>
<p>Edward Johnson (1767–1829), Mayor of Baltimore during British attack in September 1814, chair of the "Committee of Vigilance and Safety".</p><br>
<p>Philip Barton Key (1818–1859), son of Francis Scott Key, Shot and killed by Daniel E. Sickles, his lover&#39;s husband, at Lafayette Park, Washington, D.C., 27 February 1859</p><br>
<p>James McHenry (1753–1816), signer of the USA Constitution and Secretary of War, namesake for Fort McHenry.</p><br>
<p>Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), short story writer, editor and critic</p><br>
<p>Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe (1822–1847), teen-age wife of Edgar Allan Poe</p><br>
<p>Maria Clemm (1790–1871), mother-in-law and aunt of Edgar Allan Poe</p><br>
<p>William Henry Leonard Poe (1807–1831), brother of Edgar Allan Poe</p><br>
<p>General David Poe, Sr. (1743–1816), grandfather of Edgar Allan Poe</p><br>
<p>Robert Smith (1757–1842), Secretary of the Navy, Secretary Of State, and Attorney General</p><br>
<p>Samuel Smith (1752–1839), USA Congressman, USA Senator, and Mayor of Baltimore, and Major General, commander of Maryland Militia in the War of 1812, with overall command during the British attack in September 1814 and the Battle of Baltimore, with the fortification/defensive forces on "Loudenschlager&#39;s Hill (now "Hampstead Hill" in Patterson Park), the Bombardment of Fort McHenry and the Battle of North Point.</p><br>
<p>Samuel Sterett (1758–1833), USA Representative</p><br>
<p>John Sterett (1751–1787), Capt. Revolutionary War & Member of Maryland Legislature</p><br>
<p>Joseph Sterett (1773–1821), General during the War of 1812</p><br>
<p>David Harris (1753–1809), Capt. Revolutionary War & Son of John Harris, the founder of Harrisburg PA</p><br>
<p>David Stewart (1800–1858), USA Senator</p><br>
<p>John Stricker (1758–1825), War of 1812 Maryland Militia Brigadier General and commander at the Battle of North Point.</p><br>
<h3>Edgar Allan Poe</h3><br>
<p>Westminster Hall and Burying Ground is home to the grave of American author Edgar Allan Poe, arguably its most famous resident. Poe actually has two graves on this site: his original grave and a monument added in 1875. His original burial spot, towards the back of Westminster Hall, is marked by a headstone with an engraved raven. It was a family plot, lot 27, where his grandfather General David Poe Sr. and his brother Henry Leonard Poe are also buried. In 1875, a local school teacher started a "Pennies for Poe" campaign to raise money for a more appropriate monument, resulting in the large marble monument located at the front of the cemetery facing Fayette St; to this day, it is traditional for visitors to the grave to leave a penny on the monument. Poe was re-buried there along with his aunt/mother-in-law Maria Clemm. His wife Virginia died in the Bronx in 1847 and was interred in a vault. In 1885 her remains were moved to the Poe Monument and was reburied in a small bronze box to the left of the monument.</p><br>
<p>Today, this "who&#39;s who" of early Baltimore is overshadowed by the later presence of the promising writer, poet and author Edgar Allan Poe, who was buried here in October 1849, following his sudden and mysterious death after being found in a sick and semi-conscious state wearing unfamiliar clothes. Poe was taken to the Church Home and Infirmary on Broadway (between East Fayette and Baltimore Streets on "Washington Hill"), where he died four days later. He was interred in the old Western Burying Grounds of the First Presbyterian Church. Some time later a small stone was erected at the plot in the southeastern corner of the cemetery, through the efforts of his relative Neilson Poe. By a year later, a substantial church was planned to be erected over the grounds built upon supporting brick and stone arches to preserve the resting places of those interred below. The new Westminster Presbyterian Church sponsored by the earlier parishes of First Church and the newer Franklin Street Presbyterian Church, along with the Presbytery of Baltimore was organized and dedicated in July 1852.</p><br>
<p>Because of his subsequent growing literary fame as the 19th Century progressed following his death, a resolution was offered by Prof. John Basil, Jr., principal of the Number 8 Grammar School, and was adopted appointing a committee of five—Professors Basil, (Thomas D. Baird and J.J.G. Webster (of the Central High School of Baltimore, (later renamed in 1866 as the Baltimore City College), along with Misses Veeder and Wise – "to devise some means best adapted in their judgment to perpetuate the memory of one who has contributed so largely to American literature" and a subscription was taken up in October 1865 by several leaders and members of the Public School Teachers Association. Numerous activities to raise further funds were held for some time by the pupils and the teachers of the Baltimore City Public Schools, including various entertainments by the young ladies of the Western and Eastern Female High Schools, under the direction of Miss S. A. Rice. By March 1871 the "Poe Memorial Fund" amounted to about $587.00. Then a new committee of Profs. Elliott (City College), Kerr and Hamilton and Misses Rice and Baer, professors of English and Literature at the Western-Eastern High Schools, was appointed and by April 1872, resolved to apply the monies so collected to erection of a monument over Poes grave. By September 1874, with the estate of the late Principal Thomas Baird of the City College being donated consisting of $627.55, the architect of the new Baltimore City Hall on Holliday Street, Mr. George A. Frederick, was requested to design a suitable stone monument, which later ran over the expected cost, however the balance was made up by a generous donation from a Philadelphian, Mr. George W. Childs, of $650.00. The monument was then carved by local sculptor and stonemason Hugh Sisson. Poes body was exhumed and moved to the new more prominent northwestern site near the cemetery entrance gate at the corner of North Greene and West Fayette Streets. The monument was dedicated November 17, 1875 in the presence of a large concourse of spectators with addresses by Profs. William Elliott, Jr., H.E. Shepherd, and the locally famous civic activist, author-artist and orator John H. B. Latrobe, and representatives of several other public schools, colleges and institutions. The design of the monument consists of a pedestal (or die block) with an ornamental cap wholly of marble, resting on two marble slabs, and a granite base. The front of the die block bears a medallion portrait of the author-poet by the sculptor Volck, while on the western side appear the lines of inscription: "Edgar Allan Poe: born Jan. 20, 1809; died Oct. 7, 1849."</p><br>
<p>Annual observances on his birth and death dates at his grave side are still conducted to this day, attended by the WHT officials, Presbyterian Church clergy and members of several literary, educational and historical societies (such as the Poe Society of Baltimore), representatives of the several Baltimore City public high schools whose predecessors sponsored the Monuments over 140 years ago (Baltimore City College with their two old literary and debating societies: Bancroft and Carrollton-Wight, and the Western High School and the Eastern High School) and the general public and media. There is also additionally, very popular tours of the graves and catacombs below the old church and hall and activities on the festival of "Halloween" in late October.</p><br>
<p>Westminster Hall is the location of the Westminster Preservation Trust annual Poe birthday celebration every January, often featuring theatrical presentations and an apple cider toast. On Poe&#39;s birthday, January 19, an unidentified man known endearingly as the Poe Toaster visited the burying ground to make an annual tribute to Poe. The tradition seemingly ended in 2009.</p><br>
<p>The Star-Spangled Banner Flag House, formerly the Flag House & Star-Spangled Banner Museum, is a museum located in the Jonestown/Old Town and adjacent to Little Italy neighborhoods of eastern downtown Baltimore, Maryland, United States.</p><br>
<p>Built in 1793, it was the home of Mary Young Pickersgill when she moved to Baltimore in 1806 and the location where she later sewed the "Star Spangled Banner," in 1813, the huge out-sized garrison flag that flew over Fort McHenry at Whetstone Point in Baltimore Harbor in the summer of 1814 during the British Royal Navy attack in the Battle of Baltimore during the War of 1812. The museum contains furniture and antiques from the Federal period as well as items from the Pickersgill family.</p><br>
<p>A supplemental 12,600 ft&sup2; museum was constructed to the rear next to Pickersgill&#39;s home. This museum houses exhibits on the War of 1812 and the Battle of Baltimore. It has an orientation theater, gift shop, exhibit galleries, and meeting rooms. The museum features a 30 by 42 ft tall window which was created to be the same color, size, and design of the original "Star-Spangled Banner" flag of 15 stars and 15 stripes made by Pickersgill in the adjacent Flag House and completed on the floor of a nearby brewery by members of her family and servants/slaves. Set into the ground outside the museum is a map of the United States, with each state formed from a piece of stone quarried within its borders.</p><br>
<h2>Post Pickersgill</h2><br>
<p>In 1927 the house was sold to the City of Baltimore and the newly established Star-Spangled Banner Flag House Association which grew out of a number of members who had participated in the earlier Centennial Celebration in 1914. In the twenty years prior to that, the home had been used for a variety of services including: a post office, bank and shipping facility. Prior to 1908 the house was occupied by Placido Milio and his family. In 1928 it was dubbed a historic shrine.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>Additional restoration and expansion efforts were initiated in 1952 by Mayor Thomas J. D’Alesandro, Jr., twenty-five years after the initial establishment in 1927-1928 of a historical museum in the Flag House. The expansion included a smaller brick building to the rear/north for a museum with exhibits area and office space. Mayor D&#39;Alesandro was especially interested and concerned since he had lived all his life just a few blocks away to the southeast in the neighborhood of "Little Italy". The hope was to complete the home to a full restoration including replica furnishings from the time period. Although some of the money used to fuel this project came from emergency funds for the year, donations were also accepted. Many claimed that the proposed east–west route of the cross-city Interstate 95 with an interchange connection to the southern end of the Jones Falls Expressway (Interstate 83), running through the historical neighborhoods of Federal Hill and Fells Point on either side of the harbor waterfront, would ruin the natural antique environment of the historic site home.</p><br>
<p>The house was already designated a National Historic Landmark under the Historic Sites Act of 1935 program of the U. S. Department of the Interior&#39;s National Park Service in 1969.</p><br>
<h2>Activism</h2><br>
<p>At various times in its history, the Flag House has served as the backdrop for patriotic activism.</p><br>
<p>At a Flag House ceremony in June 1955 celebrating the opening of National Flag Week, retired Brigadier General Bonner Fellers in a speech advocated for "an overwhelming air force, without conscription" and an end to diplomatic ties with the Soviet Union. He also warned against ceding American sovereignty through a status of forces treaty and strongly urged in favor of the adaptation of the Bricker Amendment.</p><br>
<p>In June 1961, during a dedication ceremony for the stone map, Representative Gordon L. McDonough (R., CA) stood before a crowd of 375 people and advocated for a return "to good old-fashioned American patriotism" and for adopting Flag Day as a national holiday.</p><br>
<p>In May 1980, the Flag House held a press conference where they launched a nationwide drive to encourage all Americans to "Pause for the Pledge" on Flag Day, which in June 1985, was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan in Public Law 99–54, recognizing the pause for the Pledge of Allegiance as part of National Flag Day activities.</p><br>
<p>Meridian House is a historic mansion in Washington, D.C., located in the Meridian Hill neighborhood of Northwest D.C. It was designed by American architect John Russell Pope and built in 1920 for Ambassador Irwin B. Laughlin, who filled it with his extensive collection of French paintings and Oriental porcelain. It stayed in the Laughlin family until 1960, when it was purchased by the non-profit Meridian International Center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Meridian House was built by American diplomat Irwin B. Laughlin. He purchased the land in 1912, two years after his friend Henry White bought the adjacent site at 1624 Crescent Place. After a long career with the US Foreign Service, Laughlin retired in 1919 and built Meridian House, filling it with his collection of 18th-century French drawings and Oriental porcelains and screens. Although he later returned to the diplomatic corps, serving as Ambassador to Greece and Spain in the 1920s and 30s, Laughlin also played an active role in Washingtons artistic and historical communities.</p><br>
<p>Ambassador Laughlin was married to Therese Iselin, daughter of New York City banker Adrian Iselin Jr. Their daughter, Gertrude, who married Rear Admiral Hubert Winthrop Chanler, lived in Meridian House during her youth and from time to time after her marriage, especially when her husband was away on naval assignments. The house remained in the Laughlin family until 1958.</p><br>
<p>In 1960, a newly created non-profit organization dedicated to promoting international understanding, which later became Meridian International Center, received a grant from the Ford Foundation to purchase Meridian House. Gertrude Laughlin Chanler served as a Meridian trustee for many years and made a substantial donation to start Meridian&#39;s endowment. Her children continue to support Meridian International Center and frequently visit the house with their own children.</p><br>
<h2>The House</h2><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>In 1929, Meridian House was described by Architectural Forum as,</p><br>
<p>Perhaps as fine a piece of work of its kind as this country can show... Certainly the manner of this house has not in this country been better done, not only in terms of stylistic authenticity, but in terms of pure architecture, meaning good taste in selectivity, in elimination, in execution. It cannot from its nature do otherwise than set a standard which should endure permanently.</p><br>
<p>After undergoing a major renovation in 1994, Meridian House&#39;s principal rooms retain their architectural detail as well as some of the original decorative features, such as the 18th-century European overdoor paintings and antique brass hardware and lighting fixtures. The classical symmetry of the Louis XVI style is reflected throughout the house.</p><br>
<h3>Dining room</h3><br>
<p>The dining room features a beautiful Mortlake tapestry, which has been dated by experts as late 17th century. The tapestry, purchased by the Laughlin family in England at the turn of the century, depicts the legendary reception given Alexander the Great by the Greek philosopher Diogenes. An almost identical tapestry hangs in Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh, Scotland.</p><br>
<p>The dining room also features two portraits - one of Ambassador Laughlin and one of his daughter, Gertrude Laughlin Chanler, as a child. A portrait of Mrs. Laughlin hangs nearby in the Chairmen&#39;s Study. All three were painted by Philip de László, the renowned portrait artist of the early 20th century.</p><br>
<h3>Reception</h3><br>
<p>The reception gallery remains much as it was at the time the Laughlin family occupied the house. The wrought-iron and marble-topped side tables, the four Waterford crystal torcheres in the corners, the blue Chinese temple jars, and the antique clock and barometer on the mirrored walls are all part of the original furnishings.</p><br>
<p>The loggia, which links the major reception rooms and rear garden, includes four marble busts sculpted in France, representing the four seasons.</p><br>
<p>A Latin inscription, "Quo habitat felicitas nil intret mali", appears over the front door and translates "Where happiness dwells, evil will not enter." Another inscription, over the rear courtyard doors, reads: "Purior hic aer: late hinc conspectus in urbem," meaning "Purer here the air whence we overlook the city," a quotation also inscribed on a house at the top of Rome&#39;s Spanish Steps.</p><br>
<h3>Gardens</h3><br>
<p>The rear and side gardens largely retain their original design. The pebbled courtyard has 40 linden trees, imported from Europe when the house was built. The statues throughout the garden are original to the house, as are the statues at the four roof-line corners.</p><br>
<p>Quincy Market is a historic building near Faneuil Hall in downtown Boston, Massachusetts. It was constructed between 1824 and 1826 and named in honor of mayor Josiah Quincy, who organized its construction without any tax or debt. The market is a designated National Historic Landmark and a designated Boston Landmark in 1996, significant as one of the largest market complexes built in the United States in the first half of the 19th century. According to the National Park Service, some of Boston&#39;s early slave auctions took place near what is now Quincy Market.</p><br>
<p>As the central building of Faneuil Hall Marketplace, Quincy Market is often used metonymically for the entire development. By the mid-20th century it was badly in need of repair, and it was redeveloped into a public shopping and restaurant area in the early 1970s and re-opened in 1976. Today, this includes the original Quincy Market buildings, the later North Market and South Market buildings that flank the main Quincy Market, the historic Faneuil Hall lying at the west end, and two smaller curved buildings, added later to the eastern end.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>By the time Boston was incorporated as a city in 1822, downtown commercial demand had grown beyond the capacity of Faneuil Hall. To provide an expansion of shop space Quincy Market was built, as an indoor pavilion of vendor stalls.</p><br>
<p>Designed by Alexander Parris, the main building was built immediately east of and "behind" Faneuil Hall which at the time sat next to the waterfront at the town dock. In an early example of Boston&#39;s tendency for territorial growth via landfill, part of the harbor was filled in with dirt to provide a plot of land for the market. The commercial growth spawned by the new marketplace led to the reconstruction or addition of six city streets.</p><br>
<p>From its beginning, the Market was largely used as a produce and foodstuff shopping center, with various grocers of such goods as eggs, cheese, and bread lining its inside walls. Digging performed for the expansion of the market in the late 1970s uncovered evidence of animal bones, suggesting that butchering work was done on-site. In addition, street vendors took up space outside the building in its plazas and against its outside walls. Some surviving signs of early food and supplies merchants hang today in the upstairs seating hall.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The market is two stories tall, 535 ft long, and covers 27,000 ft&sup2; of land. Its exterior is largely granite, with red brick interior walls, and represents the first large-scale use of granite and glass in post-and-beam construction. Within, it employs innovative cast iron columns and iron tension rods. The east and west facades exhibit a strong Roman style, with strong triangular pediments and Doric columns. In contrast, the sides of the hall are more modern and American, with rows of rectangular windows.</p><br>
<p>The building&#39;s shape is a long rectangle, providing for a long hallway down its center line. On the roof are eight evenly spaced chimneys, and a copper-based dome in the center of the building, which covers an open common seating area and the major side entrances.</p><br>
<p>The main building is flanked on either side by -story brick and granite buildings, called the North Market and South Market. Part of the market&#39;s original development, these buildings have been more extensively altered than the main building. The entire complex was designated a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The central domed building was designated a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1996. The North and South Market buildings are currently pending Boston Landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>Faneuil Hall Marketplace</h2><br>
<p>In 1969, the department of Housing and Urban Development awarded the city of Boston approximately $2 million for market stabilization and restoration of roof lines and facades back to their 1826 appearance. The restoration project team included: Architectural Heritage Inc., Roger Webb; Stahl/Bennett Architects. Frederic A. Stahl, Principal in Charge; Roger Lang, Project Manager; James H. Ballou, Consulting Architect; and William LeMessurier, Structural Engineer.</p><br>
<p>By the early 1970s, Bostons meat and produce had moved to larger, more modern facilities and Quincy Market was decaying. Using a combination of public and private funds, architectural firm Benjamin Thompson and Associates and the developer Rouse Company developed a new building form, the festival marketplace. The new Faneuil Hall Marketplace, incorporating Quincy Market, opened in 1976. In 1977, it received the Harleston Parker Medal and in 2009, the AIAs Twenty-five Year Award.</p><br>
<p>The main Quincy Market building continues to be a source of food for Bostonians, though it has changed from grocery to food-stall, fast-food, and restaurants. It is a popular and busy lunchtime spot for downtown workers. In the center, surrounding the dome, is a two-story seating area.</p><br>
<p>Further street vending space is available against the outside walls of the building, especially on the south side, under a glass enclosure. Most stalls in this space sell trinkets, gifts, and other curiosities. A few restaurants also occupy fully enclosed spaces at the ends of this enclosure.</p><br>
<p>More conventional retail space is provided on the second floor and in the basement level. The Comedy Connection, one of Boston&#39;s two largest comedy clubs, only recently vacated one of the second-floor spaces, and bars and restaurants occupy space on the basement levels.</p><br>
<p>Flanking the main building in the marketplace are two equally long buildings (North Market and South Market) that expand the market space for more restaurants, specialty shops, and office spaces. Two further concave market buildings enclose a circular plaza at the market&#39;s east end.</p><br>
<p>The open spaces at both the east and west ends of the marketplace are a common venue for various street performers, as well as street vendors. Most daytime visits to Quincy Market will encounter a large circular crowd of people standing around a juggler or other act.</p><br>
<p>The Kentucky State Capitol is located in Frankfort and is the house of the three branches  of the state government of the Commonwealth of Kentucky. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Previous buildings</h3><br>
<p>From 1792 to 1830, two buildings were used as the capitol, both of which burned completely.</p><br>
<p>In 1830, another capitol was built and was used until 1910. During a bitterly contested 1899 state governor election, Democratic Party claimant William Goebel was assassinated at the capitol on his way to be inaugurated. The need for a larger building for a growing state government resulted in the replacement of that capitol building, which is now a museum operated by the Kentucky Historical Society.</p><br>
<h3>Current 1910 building</h3><br>
<p>In 1904, the Kentucky General Assembly chose Frankfort (rather than Lexington or Louisville) as the location for the state capital and appropriated $1 million for the construction of a permanent state capitol building, to be located in southern Frankfort. The official ground-breaking was August 14, 1905 and construction was completed in 1909 at a cost of $1,180,434.80.</p><br>
<p>The capitol was designed by Frank Mills Andrews, a distinguished and award-winning architect. He used the Beaux-Arts style and included many classical French interior designs. The staircases, for example, are replicas of those of the Opéra Garnier in Paris.</p><br>
<p>Between 1912 and 1963, five statues of historical figures from Kentucky were erected in the rotunda of the capitol. The first was a bronze statue of Abraham Lincoln, which was donated in 1912. Statues of Henry Clay and Ephraim McDowell were added in 1930. Both of these are the bronzed plaster models used for the bronze statues that represent Kentucky in the National Statuary Hall in the USA Capitol in Washington, D.C. In 1936, a marble statue of Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederate States of America, was placed in the rotunda. The statue of Davis was paid for by both donations and public funds, and erected under the auspices of the United Daughters of the Confederacy. The Kentucky General Assembly voted to fund a bronze statue of Alben Barkley, former Vice President of the United States, and it was added to the rotunda in 1963.</p><br>
<p>In 2018, a plaque in front of the statue of Jefferson Davis, which referred to Davis as a "patriot" and a "hero", was removed by the Kentucky Historic Properties Commission. On June 4, 2020, Governor Andy Beshear stated that he believed the statue of Davis should be removed. On June 13, 2020, the Kentucky Historic Properties Commission voted 11–1 to remove the statue from the Capitol. The Davis statue was to be moved to the Jefferson Davis Monument State Historic Site situated in Fairview, Kentucky, the birthplace of Davis.</p><br>
<p>In November 2022, a bronze statue of Nettie Depp by Amanda Matthews, Depps great-great niece, was unveiled inside that capitol. It is the first permanent large-scale monument of a woman inside the state capitol. While Netties influence was not statewide, the Historic Properties Advisory Commission considered her a representative example of Kentucky women who achieved professional and personal success. The statue&#39;s unveiling occurred in November 2022.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<p>The main part of the Capitol has three floors. The first floor contains the offices of the governor (and his or her staff), lieutenant governor, secretary of state, and attorney general. It also features a rotunda with statues of famous Kentuckians and other exhibits, including Kentucky Women Remembered.</p><br>
<p>The rotunda contains four statues of notable historical figures from Kentucky. In the center of the rotunda stands a bronze statue of President Abraham Lincoln. Three more statues line the walls of the rotunda: bronze statues of Henry Clay, Vice President Alben Barkley, and Ephraim McDowell.</p><br>
<p>The second floor contains the courtroom of the state Supreme Court, as well as the chambers of the justices. The state law library is nearby. The State Reception Room is also located on the second floor.</p><br>
<p>The chambers of the House of Representatives and Senate face each other on opposite ends of the third floor. Some high-level legislative offices (such as for the Speaker of the House and the President of the Senate) are also located there.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol also has a partial fourth floor which houses the galleries of the House and Senate, as well as a few offices for legislative committee staffers.</p><br>
<p>In addition, there is a partially buried basement level with mostly offices for clerks and maintenance personnel. However, it also contains a small gift shop and lunch counter as well as a tunnel to the neighboring Capitol Annex building. The Annex houses General Assembly committee rooms, General Assembly members offices and a cafeteria.</p><br>
<h2>People who have lain in state in the Rotunda</h2><br>
<p>Rebecca Boone, wife of Daniel Boone, 1845</p><br>
<p>Daniel Boone, explorer, 1845</p><br>
<p>Joseph Clay Stiles Blackburn, United States Senator, 1918</p><br>
<p>Augustus Owsley Stanley, Governor, 1958</p><br>
<p>Tom Garrett, state senator, 1979</p><br>
<p>Col. Harland Sanders, founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken, 1980</p><br>
<p>A.B. "Happy" Chandler, Governor and United States Senator, 1991</p><br>
<p>Bert T. Combs, Governor, 1991</p><br>
<p>Thelma Stovall, Lt. Governor, 1994</p><br>
<p>Lawrence W. Wetherby, Governor, 1994</p><br>
<p>Wilson W. Wyatt, Lt. Governor, 1996</p><br>
<p>Vic Hellard Jr., Executive Director of the Kentucky Legislative Research Commission, 1996</p><br>
<p>Mary Louise Foust, State Auditor, 1999.</p><br>
<p>Wendell P. Butler, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2000</p><br>
<p>Robert F. Stephens, Chief Justice of the Kentucky Supreme Court, 2002</p><br>
<p>Kenny Rapier, State Senator, 2002</p><br>
<p>Edward T. "Ned" Breathitt, Governor, 2003</p><br>
<p>Louie B. Nunn, Governor, 2004</p><br>
<p>William E. McAnulty Jr., Justice on the Kentucky Supreme Court, 2008</p><br>
<p>Mike Haydon, Governor&#39;s Chief of Staff, 2012</p><br>
<p>Wendell Ford, Governor and United States Senator, 2015</p><br>
<p>Georgia Davis Powers, State Senator, 2016</p><br>
<p>John Y. Brown Jr., Governor and business mogul, 2022</p><br>
<p>Julian Carroll, Governor, 2023</p><br>
<h2>Security</h2><br>
<p>The Capitol used to be completely open during normal business hours, and local residents often used the marble hallways for exercise (the Frankfort equivalent of "mall walking"). Currently, anyone without proper state credentials must go through a metal detector. Security for the complex is provided by officers from the Facilities Security Branch of the Kentucky State Police along with specifically assigned state troopers.</p><br>
<p>Inman Park is an intown neighborhood on the east side of Atlanta, Georgia, and its first planned suburb. It was named for Samuel M. Inman.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Today&#39;s neighborhood of Inman Park includes areas that were originally designated</p><br>
<p>Inman Park proper (today the Inman Park Historic District)</p><br>
<p>Moreland Park (today the Inman Park-Moreland Historic District)</p><br>
<p>part of Copenhill Park (properties on Atlantis, the south side of Highland, and the north sides of Sinclair and a block of Austin)</p><br>
<p>former industrial areas on the western side, now mixed-use developments including Inman Park Village and North Highland Steel</p><br>
<p>The area was part of the battlefield in the Battle of Atlanta in 1864.</p><br>
<h3>Atlanta&#39;s first streetcar suburb</h3><br>
<p>Inman Park (proper) was planned in the late 1880s by Joel Hurt, a civil engineer and real-estate developer who intended to create a rural oasis connected to the city by the first of Atlanta&#39;s electric streetcar lines, along Edgewood Avenue. The East Atlanta Land Company acquired and developed more than 130 acres east of the city and Hurt named the new suburb for his friend and business associate, Samuel M. Inman. Joseph Forsyth Johnson was hired as landscape designer for Inman Park who included curvilinear street designs and liberal usage of open spaces in his planning.</p><br>
<p>The Atlanta Constitution in 1896 grandly described Inman Park:</p><br>
<p>High up above the city, where the purest breezes and the brightest sunshine drove away the germs of disease, and where nature had lavished her best gifts, the gentlemen who conceived the thought of Inman Park found the locality above all others which they desired. It was to be a place of homes, of pretty homes, green lawns, and desirable inhabitants. And all save those who would make desirable residents have been excluded.... It&#39;s the prettiest, highest, healthiest and most desirable locality I ever saw. Everybody is friendly and neighborly.... And as far as accessibility it ranks second to no residence portion of the city. We have three car lines and frequent schedules.</p><br>
<p>Like new developments throughout the United States at the time, but in stark contrast to the attitudes prevalent in the neighborhood today, Inman Park was conceived of and promoted as a segregated community.</p><br>
<p>Moreland Park was by contrast developed as a more traditional, incremental building of sub-divisions as opposed to the grand plan for Inman Park proper.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>The arrival of the automobile allowed upper class Atlantans to live in suburbs farther north from downtown workplaces, such as Morningside and what is now considered Buckhead. Inman Park became less fashionable and the exuberant Victorian architecture came to seem dated. The mansions came to be subdivided into apartments.</p><br>
<p>Similar to other intown neighborhoods such as Virginia Highland, Inman Park fell to blight during the white middle and upper class exodus to the northern suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s, and was:</p><br>
<p>an economically depressed neighborhood of mostly blue-collar white folks, elderly couples who could not afford to move out and families on disability and welfare. They lived in rented bungalows or big houses chopped up into tiny roach-infested apartments.</p><br>
<h3>Atlanta&#39;s first intown neighborhood to gentrify</h3><br>
<p>Driving through the neighborhood on his way to appraise stained glass windows in the doomed home of Judge Durwood T. Pye on Poplar Circle, Robert Griggs was smitten by the extraordinary architecture of the Beath-Dickey House, then a dilapidated multi-unit rental property. He and his partner, Robert Aiken, bought the house and restored it to a single-family dwelling. They were followed by others who restored homes; founded Inman Park Restoration, the neighborhood association; and created a neighborhood newsletter, a garden club to rehabilitate public spaces, and a pre-school. To publicize the progress they were making, they began a Tour of Homes with a small festival, which has grown into the hugely popular Inman Park Festival, held each spring.</p><br>
<h3>Freeway revolt against I-485</h3><br>
<p>During this same period, there was an intense fight against the I-485 freeway which was to be built through the neighborhood, although many properties in Inman Park, as well as the entire neighboring neighborhood of Copenhill, were torn down in preparation for freeway construction.</p><br>
<h3>Inman Park today</h3><br>
<p>After decades of restoration and renewal, Inman Park is now regarded as a highly desirable intown neighborhood with a mixture of rental and owner-occupied houses and condominiums. Built up as it was over decades, the neighborhood housing now ranges from tiny mill town shotguns to the Victorian mansions of the original development, intermixed with bungalows of all sizes built during the first three decades of the 20th century. Like its housing, the makeup of Inman Park has changed since its inception, with a population that is 25% non-white and of varying economic levels—although increasing housing prices are beginning to force more economic homogeneity. Since the beginning of its renewal, inclusivity and a strong sense of community have distinguished Inman Park. The neighborhood association has always welcomed renters and homeowners alike, with nominal annual dues, while the Inman Park Festival, which attracts tens of thousands of visitors every spring, brings residents together to produce the largest all-volunteer festival in Georgia. The Festival&#39;s centerpiece is the Tour of Homes, which showcases the wide variety of sizes and types of residences in the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Former industrial areas on the west side of the neighborhood have been redeveloped into mixed-use complexes. The former General Pipe and Foundry site is now North Highland Steel and the site is now Inman Park Village. In the early 1990s the former Atlanta Stove Works was transformed by swapping out two letters of its name and became the Atlanta Stage Works, a film and media production center that eventually housed the early Tyler Perry film studios and the National AIDS Quilt. In 2015 it was converted into a mixed-use office and restaurant space, to be added to the space across Krog Street to form the Krog Street Market.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Inman Park is bordered by:</p><br>
<p>the BeltLine Eastside Trail on the west, across which lies the Old Fourth Ward</p><br>
<p>Freedom Parkway on the north, across which lies Poncey-Highland</p><br>
<p>Moreland Avenue on the east, across which lies Candler Park</p><br>
<p>DeKalb Avenue on the south, across which lie Cabbagetown and Reynoldstown</p><br>
<p>Little Five Points district is located where Inman Park and Candler Park meet at Moreland Avenue and Euclid/McClendon.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Inman Park contains Atlantas best collection of residential architecture from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Styles include Queen Anne, high-style Italianate and Romanesque mansion as well as smaller bungalows, shotguns, and foursquares. Inman Park was Atlantas first example of a garden suburb, with great attention paid to street layout, parks and other public space, and would inspire other Atlanta garden suburbs such as the Frederick Law Olmsted-designed Druid Hills.</p><br>
<p>There are two historic districts within the Inman Park neighborhoods: the Inman Park historic district, and the Inman Park-Moreland Historic District, originally the separate suburb of Moreland Park.</p><br>
<p>Notable houses include:</p><br>
<p>Beath-Dickey House</p><br>
<p>Callan Castle (Candler mansion)</p><br>
<p>Kriegshaber House (Wrecking Ball Brewpub)</p><br>
<h2>Other points of interest</h2><br>
<p>The Krog Street Tunnel under the CSX Railroad connects Inman Park with Cabbagetown and is famous for street art.</p><br>
<p>Krog Street Market is a gourmet food hall</p><br>
<p>Edgewood Avenue in both Inman Park and Old Fourth Ward is a restaurant street that has been gaining acclaim especially since 2013.</p><br>
<p>Highland Avenue connects Inman Park to the Poncey Highland and Virginia Highland neighborhoods. The Highland Avenue corridor offers dozens of local restaurants and shops.</p><br>
<p>St. Hilda&#39;s was built in 1939 as a Baptist church, and since 1978 has been a parish of the Anglican Catholic Church.</p><br>
<h2>Parks</h2><br>
<p>Parks in Inman Park include Springvale Park, a pet project of Joel Hurt and designed by the Olmsted Brothers. Part of Freedom Park lies in the neighborhood, which the BeltLine trail also borders. There are also smaller parks: Delta Park, Inman Park, the park in Inman Park Village, and the Bass Recreation Center.</p><br>
<h2>Government</h2><br>
<p>Inman Park is in NPU N. Neighbors participate in the Inman Park Neighborhood Association (IPNA).</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Inman Park residents are served by Atlanta Public Schools.</p><br>
<p>Zoned schools include:</p><br>
<p>Inman Middle School</p><br>
<p>Midtown High School</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>MARTA runs bus service and rail service. The Inman Park / Reynoldstown MARTA station is located at the south end of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Fort Orange  was the first permanent Dutch settlement in New Netherland; the present-day city and state capital Albany, New York developed near this site. It was built in 1624 as a replacement for Fort Nassau, which had been built on nearby Castle Island and served as a trading post until 1617 or 1618, when it was abandoned due to frequent flooding. Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau. Due to a dispute between the Director-General of New Netherland and the patroonship of Rensselaerswyck regarding jurisdiction over the fort and the surrounding community, the fort and community became an independent municipality, paving the way for the future city of Albany. After the English reconquered the region they soon abandoned Fort Orange  in favor of a new fort: Fort Frederick, constructed in 1676.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1624, a ship with 30 Protestant Walloons (people from what is today southern Belgium) landed in New Netherland; 18 of the men were sent to the location near present-day Albany. Under direction of the Dutch, they built Fort Orange roughly 2 mi north of Fort Nassau, which was prone to flooding, and about five miles south of the confluence of the Mohawk River and the North River.</p><br>
<p>The Walloons were later recalled south to settle New Amsterdam. A 1628 publication on the population of New Netherland stated that "there are no families at Fort Orange... they keep five or six and twenty (25 or 26) persons, traders, there". In 1626, the commander of Fort Orange and a company of men set out from the fort to assist the Mohican people in their war against the Mohawk, the powerful Iroquois tribe based in the Mohawk Valley to the west of the fort. The Dutch party was ambushed and three men were killed approximately a mile from the fort, roughly where Lincoln Park and Delaware Avenue are sited today.</p><br>
<p>Whereas later settlement would be through the purchase of land from the Native Americans, the Dutch built Fort Orange without any consent. They continued to hold it only through the goodwill of the Mahican, and the occasional presents that they gave to the local Mahicans.</p><br>
<p>When the Dutch established the Charter of Privileges and Exemptions in 1629 setting up the patroon system, Kiliaen van Rensselaer established his patroonship of Rensselaerswyck, surrounding Fort Orange on 24 mi of shoreline along the Hudson River and 24 mi inland on each side of the fort. This land patent was interpreted by van Rensselaer as including Fort Orange and the settlement that had begun outside its walls. He began purchasing and acquiring title to the lands from the Mahican.</p><br>
<p>In 1630, Gillis Hoosett purchased in van Rensselaers name the lands to the south and north of the fort from the natives. Later in 1630 the first permanent Dutch settlers and farmers came to Fort Orange and settled on the outskirts of the fort; their village was first called the Fuyck and later Beverwyck. In 1634 the commander of Fort Orange ordered Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert west into the Mohawk Valley and Indian country, for the purpose of understanding why the fur trade had declined. The trip lasted six weeks and took Bogaert and his men through a number of Mohawk villages and into Oneida villages, at least 100 miles from the fort. This journey was recorded in van den Bogaerts daily journal which is titled, A Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country. In the 1640s a French Jesuit priest and missionary, Isaac Jogues, described Fort Orange as "a wretched little fort... built of stakes, with four or five pieces of cannon of Breteuil".</p><br>
<p>In 1648, dispute arose between agents of the Dutch West India Company and agents of the patroon over control of Fort Orange and the surrounding settlement. The Director-General of New Netherland, representing the West India Company, was Pieter Stuyvesant, who saw the patroons position, power, and land as a direct threat to the West India Companys ability to profit from the beaver pelt trade in Fort Orange. Several confrontations arose over the status of the fort and the rights of settlers around it. Stuyvesant at first ordered all buildings within cannon shot of the fort to be destroyed, then lowered that circumference to that of musket shot. In response, the patroon&#39;s agent, Commander van Schlechtenhorst, decided to expand settlement to "within pistol shot of Fort Orange".</p><br>
<p>After the yearly freshets had damaged much of the fort, the West India Company decided to reconstruct the fort using stone. In response, van Schlechtenhorst declared it illegal for anyone to quarry stone within Rensselaerswyck for the fort or for anyone to sell the material to the forts commander, Carl van Brugge. All material for the fort had to be shipped in from outside the colony. Van Schlechtenhorst claimed that Fort Orange had been illegally built on the patroons lands, while Stuyvesant noted that Fort Orange had been built 15 years prior to the establishment of Rensselaerswyck.</p><br>
<p>In 1651, Stuyvesant declared the jurisdiction of the fort to extend 600 paces around the fort, thereby severing it from Rensselaerswyck; he appointed Johannes Dyckman as commissary of Fort Orange. In 1652, Stuyvesant, to settle this dispute once and for all, set up a "Court of Justice for the Village of Beverwyck and its dependencies", the first municipal government for the future city of Albany.</p><br>
<p>At the time when Beverwyck consisted of roughly 100 structures huddled next to the fort, Stuyvesant set up Beverwyck at a safer distance from the cannons of the fort and laid out future Albany&#39;s oldest streets – State Street and Broadway.</p><br>
<p>By the end of the 1650s, the fort was in disrepair again,</p><br>
<p>In 1663, smallpox raged in Fort Orange, killing one person a day, which was a large percentage given the small population in the fort. On September 8, 1664, the English, after sending numerous war ships to New Amsterdam, demanded the surrender of New Netherland and came to terms with the Dutch. On that date New Netherland became the Province of New York with Colonel Richard Nicolls appointed as the first English colonial governor; New Amsterdam was renamed New York. Johannes De Decker sailed on that day from New Amsterdam to Fort Orange to rally the troops and settlers to resist English rule. On September 10, Governor Nicholls sent troops to demand the peaceful surrender of the "Fort Aurania", aurania being the Latin name for "orange" that the English used when referring to Fort Orange.</p><br>
<p>It was not until September 24, 1664, that vice-director of New Netherland Johannes de Montagne surrendered the fort to the English, and Colonel George Cartwright took command. On the 25th, Captain John Manning was given control of the fort, which was renamed Fort Albany; Beverwyck was named Albany.</p><br>
<p>In 1673 the Dutch retook New York City, which they named New Orange, on July 29, then retook Albany on August 3. In September, Albany was renamed Willemstadt and Fort Albany became Fort Nassau. The Treaty of Westminster, signed on February 19, 1674, renamed New Orange and Willemstadt back to their English names; Fort Nassau became Fort Albany and Willemstadt became Albany.</p><br>
<p>In 1666, Jeremias van Rensselaer, then-patroon of Rensselaerswyck, had petitioned the new government of Governor Nicholls to recognize Fort Albany (Fort Orange) as part of Rensselaerswyck. Governor Nicholls informed him that he would be wise to drop the matter until he heard from the Duke of York. In 1678, Governor Andros issued to the patroons heirs a grant reaffirming the patroons rights over Rensselaerswyck, but leaving out Fort Albany and the immediate area around the fort.</p><br>
<p>The English abandoned Fort Orange and built a new fort on top of State Street Hill named Fort Frederick; it served both to defend the settlement from the Mohawk and other Iroquois to the west and to be on high ground to remind the Dutch inhabitants of English rule. The land around the old fort was sold to the Dutch Reformed Church for use as pastureland, but the fort structure continued to deteriorate. It was indicated on maps during the 18th century, labeled as "ruins of an Old Fort." Richard Smith, a traveler, observed by 1769 that there was "nothing to be seen of Fort Orange... but the Ditch which surrounded it". After the American Revolutionary War, the deteriorated site of the old fort was memorialized as a historic site and was the site of many historical observances.</p><br>
<h3>Subsequent occupation</h3><br>
<p>Simeon De Witt built a large house or mansion and a number of outbuildings on the site of the old Dutch fort during the 1790s; the address for the site of the old fort became 549 South Market Street (later Broadway). On his property traces of the old fort could still be seen as late as 1812. He lived at this location while he was the surveyor-general of New York. Following his death, his mansion and outbuildings were adapted for use as the Fort Orange Hotel. It burned down in 1848 but was rebuilt in a second structure under the same name.</p><br>
<p>In 1886, as part of the bicentennial of Albany&#39;s incorporating document, the Dongan Charter, the city erected a bronze metal engraved tablet at the site of the northeastern bastion of Fort Orange. In the 1930s the tablet was moved during construction of the first of two Dunn Memorial Bridges (named for Private Parker F. Dunn (1890–1918, a local veteran / soldier of the United States Army, killed on the Western Front in northern France, during the First World War (1914/1917–1918), and awarded the congressional Medal of Honor, the current second / replacement span built in 1969. It carries USA Route 9 and USA Route 20 highways across the upper Hudson River, between Albany on the west to Rensselaer, New York in the east.</p><br>
<p>For almost 100 years, the original installation site of the plaque did not mark the true accurate site of the colonial era Dutch military post of Fort Orange. The Albany Institute of History and Art has a cannonball labeled as "Dug up at Fort Orange site July 22nd 1886", the date / year that the bicentennial marker was placed. No known accurate historical research or archeological excavations digging were done back then in the 1880s, other than simply placing the bronze historical marker. The tablet was moved again in 1971 after the 1970–71 archeologist historical excavations discovered remnants of the Dutch fort which were prompted during the construction project for nearby larger / modern Interstate 787 and the highway interchange with the South Mall Expressway. The marker was returned to the actual verified site of historic Fort Orange, but not to the former location of the northeastern bastion.</p><br>
<p>As the Fort Orange Archeological Site, the area of the fort was declared a National Historic Landmark (and added to the lists of the National Register of Historic Places) on November 4, 1993, (maintained by the National Park Service of the United States Department of the Interior).</p><br>
<h2>Commanders of the Dutch and English / British forts</h2><br>
<p>Adriaen Jorrissen Thienpont</p><br>
<p>Daniel van Krieckebeck ("Crieckenbeeck... killed by Mohawks in 1626")</p><br>
<p>Bastiaen Jansz Krol ("appointed commissary of Fort Orange several months... after... was killed by Mohawks in 1626&quot "Krol returned to the Netherlands in 1629")</p><br>
<p>Hans Jorissen Houten</p><br>
<p>Carl van Brugge</p><br>
<p>Johannes Dyckman</p><br>
<p>Johannes de Decker</p><br>
<p>Johannes de la Montagne</p><br>
<h3>as Fort Albany under the English</h3><br>
<p>Captain John Manning</p><br>
<p>Captain John Baker</p><br>
<h3>as Fort Nassau under the Dutch</h3><br>
<p>Lieutenant Andries Draeyer</p><br>
<h2>Archeological historical excavations (1970–1971)</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the 1970 excavations, no 17th century Dutch colonial era artifacts had been discovered in Albany. The excavations were undertaken by the New York State Historic Trust with the cooperation of the New York State Department of Transportation from October 20, 1970, until March 1971. The first test hole was made in what had been the cellar of the De Witt house, which had obliterated all remnants of the old fort. Digging at a site under Broadway in front of the house turned up many pieces from the Dutch colonial past. Among those were a Jew&#39;s harp, tobacco pipes, beads, Rhenish stoneware, and Delftware. The excavations also revealed the former south moat and counterscarp, a pebbled path from the east entrance of the fort, a brewery owned by Jean Labatie built in 1647, and parts of several houses owned by Hendrick Andriessen van Doesburgh, Abraham Staats, and Hans Vos.</p><br>
<p>From the excavations, scholars noted that venison (deer meat) made up the majority of the meat eaten by the settlers and soldiers of the fort, followed by pork. The greatest number of fish bones and scales were found in a pit 20 ft south of the pebbled entrance path dating from before 1648. Sturgeon were found infrequently in later 17th-century deposits. Eating and drinking utensils consisted of lead-glazed red-bodied and white/buff bodied earthenware, tin earthenware, Rhenish German stoneware, Chinese Empire porcelain, glass roemers, Spechter glasses, and façon de Venise glassware. The tin-glazed earthenware, at least prior to 1650, were of the majolica variety and not delftware. Porcelain was rare, found only as a few shards.</p><br>
<p>The remains of many clay pipes were found, often with the "EB" maker&#39;s mark of Eduard Bird (c. 1610–65) of Amsterdam.</p><br>
<p>The site was in continual use and artifacts recovered include 1830s creamware or pearlware and 1860s copper bottom coffee pot remnants. The artifacts from the excavation are housed and occasionally exhibited at the New York State Museum in Albany.</p><br>
<p>Mount Bonnell, also known as Covert Park, is a prominent point alongside the Lake Austin portion of the Colorado River in Austin, Texas. It has been a popular tourist destination since the 1850s. The mount provides a vista for viewing the city of Austin, Lake Austin, and the surrounding hills. It was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1969, bearing Marker number 6473, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mount Bonnell is often described as the highest point in Austin, with the elevation at its peak about 775 ft above mean sea level (AMSL). If Mount Bonnell ever held this distinction, it was only because the city limits did not include the next summit to the north, Mount Barker, which has an elevation of about 840 ft above mean sea level. City of Austin records, however, indicate that the city annexed for "full purpose jurisdiction" both Mt. Bonnell and Mt. Barker as part of the same parcel "on or before" 1951; Mt. Bonnell entered the city limits with its higher neighbor, Mt. Barker. Many other areas now in the city of Austin are also higher than Mount Bonnell, but few publicly accessible spots offer such a sweeping view of the downtown area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Mount Bonnell&#39;s Indian Trail</h3><br>
<p>A historical marker was placed at Mount Bonnell in 1969 by State Historical Survey Committee. The marker reads:</p><br>
<p>Years after Bigfoot Wallace&#39;s refuge in the cave on Mount Bonnell, when asked why he had chosen the cave as a refuge, he responded "Well the cave was right on the old Indian trail leading down to Austin... and besides, the cave was in the best hunting ground for bear in all this country.."</p><br>
<h3>Julia Lee Sinks</h3><br>
<p>Julia L. Sinks, author and historian, was an early settler to Austin, arriving in the spring of 1840. Before meeting and marrying George Sinks, chief clerk of the Post Office Department during the Republic years, she lived on West Pecan, present day 6th street, and later wrote "Our home was on the beaten track of the Indians into town from the pass of Mount Bonnell. The knolls beyond the quarry branch were interspersed with timber, and sometimes though not often, we would see galloping past the open spaces beyond the blanketed Indian. The path along the quarry branch, secluded as it was, became their main inlet to the town. It was a sheltered road, never traveled at night by whites, so the Indians claimed right of way, and all full moons brought moccasin tracks in abundance".</p><br>
<h3>Abduction of Simpson Children</h3><br>
<p>If Mount Bonnell was on an Indian trail into Austin, it was also a trail out, as illustrated in another story included in Wilbarger&#39;s book, Indian Depredations of Texas. In 1842, a Mrs. Simpson living on that very same street as Julia Lee Sinks, West Pecan, about three blocks west of Congress, had two children – a daughter 14, a son 12—abducted by Indians while the children were in the adjacent "valley" (Shoal Creek). Wilbarger says that at that time there were no houses there. The Indians "seized the children, mounted their horses and made off for the mountains going in the direction of Mt. Bonnell". A posse was raised and gave pursuit. Wilbarger then says "At one time the citizens came within sight of the redskins just before reaching Mt. Bonnell, but the Indians, after arriving at the place, passed on just beyond to the top of the mountain, which being rocky, the citizens lost the trail and were never able to find where the savages went down the mountain".</p><br>
<p>The Simpson girl was killed, but the boy survived and was later "traded off to some Indian traders, who returned him to his mother". It is because the boy survived and was returned home that we know what happened after the posse lost the trail of the Indians on Mount Bonnell. From Mt. Bonnell they stopped at Spicewood Springs, "which is situated in the edge of the mountains". This is where the Simpson girl was killed. Spicewood Springs is located about 5 miles north of Mount Bonnell, at the present day intersections of Mopac Expressway and Spicewood Springs Road.</p><br>
<h3>Origin of the name</h3><br>
<p>Mount Bonnell is generally believed to have been named after early Texas newspaper publisher George W. Bonnell, Though sources have long credited George Bonnell as the mountain&#39;s namesake, Albert Sidney Johnston may have named Mount Bonnell in present-day Austin for his friend and fellow West Point graduate Joseph Bonnell, who was a Captain in the Texas Army during the War for Independence. There is little contemporaneous evidence to support either derivation of the name.</p><br>
<p>Legend has it that Mount Bonnell was once called Antoinette&#39;s Leap, after a young woman who leaped to her death to avoid being captured by Native Americans who had killed her fiancé.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mt. Bonnell forms part of the Balcones Fault Escarpment and these "balconies" were first described by Bernardo de Miranda in 1756. The lower Cretaceous Glen Rose Formation limestone outcrops to the west of the fault zone but is buried 1000 feet to the east.</p><br>
<p>A stratigraphic column starts with the Lower Cretaceous Trinity Group overlain by the Edwards Group and the Georgetown Formation. Upper Cretaceous formations follow, starting with the Del Rio Clay, Buda Limestone, and then the Eagle Ford Group. Formations within the Trinity Group include the Hammett Formation, Cow Creek Formation, Hensel Formation, and Lower and Upper Glen Rose Formation. The Hammett and the lower portion of the Upper Glen Rose act as confining units (or aquitard) for the Middle Trinity Aquifer. The Upper Glen Rose contains the Upper Trinity Aquifer, which appears to have intra-aquifer groundwater flow with the Edwards Aquifer as water levels are at the same elevation. Formations within the Edwards Group include the Kainier Formation and the Person Formation. The Upper Cretaceous rock units confine the Edwards Aquifer within the group.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Bonnell fault has a vertical throw of up to 600 feet, making it the most prominent normal fault within the Balcones Fault Zone. During the Miocene, the Edwards Group was displaced downwards relative to the Glen Rose Formation on the Edwards Plateau, so that they are juxtaposed.</p><br>
<p>The B&O Railroad Museum is a museum and historic railway station exhibiting historic railroad equipment in Baltimore, Maryland. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad  company originally opened the museum on July 4, 1953, with the name of the Baltimore & Ohio Transportation Museum. It has been called one of the most significant collections of railroad treasures in the world and has the largest collection of 19th-century locomotives in the USA The museum is located in the Baltimore and Ohio Railroads old Mount Clare Station and adjacent roundhouse, and retains 40 acres of the B&Os sprawling Mount Clare Shops site, which is where, in 1829, the B&O began America&#39;s first railroad and is the oldest railroad manufacturing complex in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Mount Clare is considered to be a birthplace of American railroading, as the site of the first regular railroad passenger service in the USA, beginning on May 22, 1830. It was also to this site that the first telegraph message, "What hath God wrought?" was sent on May 24, 1844, from Washington, D.C., using Samuel Morse&#39;s electric telegraph.</p><br>
<p>The museum houses collections of 19th- and 20th-century artifacts related to America&#39;s railroads. The collection includes 250 pieces of railroad rolling stock, 15,000 artifacts, 5,000 cuft of archival material, four significant 19th-century buildings, including the historic roundhouse, and a mile of track, considered the most historic mile of railroad track in the United States. Train rides are offered on the mile of track on Wednesday through Sunday from April through December and on weekends in January. In 2002, the museum had 160,000 visitors annually.</p><br>
<p>The museum also features an outdoor G-scale layout, two indoor HO scale model, and a wooden model train for children to climb on. From Thanksgiving through the New Year, local model railroad groups set up large layouts on the roundhouse floor and in select locations on the grounds of the museum. A museum store offers toys, books, DVDs, and other railroad-related items.</p><br>
<p>The museum and station were designated as a USA National Historic Landmark in 1961. In 2008, the museum won three awards in Nickelodeons Parents Picks Awards in the categories of Best Museum for Little Kids, Best Indoor Playspace for Little Kids, and Best Indoor Playspace for Big Kids. Television and film actor Michael Gross is the museum&#39;s "celebrity spokesman".</p><br>
<p>The museum definitively documented 24 Freedom Seekers that used the B&O Railroad on their journeys on the Underground Railroad – 8 of which traveled through the museums historic site of Mount Clare. In 2021, the museums Mount Clare Station building was designated as a National Park Service Underground Railroad Network to Freedom site.</p><br>
<p>The museum also hosts an annual Day Out with Thomas event every year, complete with the train&#39;s excursion including a non-powered Thomas the Tank Engine replica.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The inaugural horse-drawn B&O train traveled the 13 mi of the newly completed track from Mount Clare to Ellicott Mills (now Ellicott City, Maryland), on May 22, 1830, the first regular railroad passenger service in the USA The existing Mount Clare station brick structure was constructed in 1851. The adjacent roundhouse designed by Ephraim Francis Baldwin was built in 1884 to service the B&O&#39;s passenger cars.</p><br>
<p>For much of its history, the B&O had been collecting locomotives and other artifacts from its history for public relations purposes. This collection was stored in various places until the railroad decided to centralize it in a permanent home. The car shop of the Mt. Clare Shops was chosen, and the new museum opened on July 4, 1953.</p><br>
<p>The museum ended up outliving its parent B&O Railroad, and was kept intact by both the Chessie System and CSX Corporation. In 1990, CSX deeded the property and collection to the newly formed, not-for-profit museum organization governed by an independent board of directors and provided it with a $5 million endowment. In 1999, the museum became affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution.</p><br>
<p>In the early morning of February 17, 2003, heavy snow from the Presidents Day Storm collapsed half of the roof of the museums roundhouse. Although the structures central support columns remained standing, the supporting iron struts and ties of the destroyed roofing sections failed under the snow load. The museum suffered heavy damage not only to the roundhouse itself but also to the collection within the roundhouse. Some of the items were damaged beyond repair. Reporting on the devastation the following day, The Baltimore Sun said, "...hours after the collapse, columns of mangled steel stuck out from the roundhouse... Locomotives and passenger cars in the museums collection, some dating from the 1830s, could be seen covered with snow and debris." The roundhouse, with a newly repaired roof, reopened to the public on November 13, 2004, and the damaged locomotives and cars were surrounded by a plexiglass barrier. As of September 2015, all damaged exhibits have been restored to their original appearance.</p><br>
<p>After the roof collapse, subsequent fundraising and restoration allowed the museum to upgrade many of its facilities. In 2005 the museum opened a new service facility west of the roundhouse for restoration of historical equipment and maintenance of active equipment.</p><br>
<h2>Collection</h2><br>
<p>The B&O Railroad Museum possesses the oldest and most comprehensive American railroad collections in the world. Dating from the beginning of American railroading, the collection contains locomotives and rolling stock, historic buildings, railroading artifacts, and an extensive archives and research library that documents the impact of American railroading and the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad on American economics, culture, and history.</p><br>
<p>The collection is being made available through an online searchable database.</p><br>
<h2>Notable rolling stock</h2><br>
<p>The museum&#39;s rolling stock collection include both originals and replicas, some of which were built by the B&O for its centennial "Fair of the Iron Horse" in 1927. Collection highlights include:</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Ohio 4-4-0 #25 William Mason built in 1856, used in The Great Locomotive Chase, and later in Wild Wild West. Operated until October 2014, retired from service due to thin crown sheet work begins earlier.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio 0-4-0 "Tom Thumb" 1927 replica. Had been refurbished by the Strasburg Rail Road and restored to operating condition for 2004 "Fair of the Iron Horse." Only operated a handful of times, at most, after refurbishment. On display in the roundhouse, in non-operational condition. In need of Federally mandated boiler inspection to operate again. Last operated circa Christmas 2013.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio 0-4-0 #8 "John Hancock" built in 1836.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio 4-2-0 #13 "Lafayette" 1927 replica. In the past, it was occasionally fired up and operated by the museum for demonstration purposes, currently on display in the roundhouse, in non-operational condition. In need of federally mandated boiler inspection to operate again. Last operated circa October 2015</p><br>
<p>Cumberland Valley 2-2-2T #13 "Pioneer" built in 1851. On loan.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio 4-6-0 #305: (Built in 1869 at Mt. Clare, Mother Hubbard design based on Ross Winans&#39; design. Previously #217.)</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio 4-6-0 #147 "Thatcher Perkins" built in 1863.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio 0-8-0 #57 "Memnon" built in 1848.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Ohio 2-8-0 #545 A.J. Cromwell built in 1888.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Ohio 2-6-0 #600 "J. C. Davis" built at Mt. Clare in 1875, which won first prize at the 1876 Centennial Exposition.</p><br>
<p>St. Elizabeths Hospital 0-4-0T #4: one of the last Porter steam locomotives built, built in 1950 for use at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington DC. Later ran at Ft. Eustis then in storage at Cass Scenic Railroad. Arrived at B&O Museum in 1980s. Restored to operating condition in 2002 and re-restored in 2005 after suffering damage in a roof collapse. Out of Service for a 1,472-day inspection, last operated circa Fall 2015. Coal burner.</p><br>
<p>Clinchfield Railroad 4-6-0 #1 built in 1882. The engine was used for excursions from 1968 until 1979 + 1980 Clean ups.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Ohio 0-4-0 "Grasshopper", built in 1832 by Phineas Davis and Israel Gartner, one of the oldest surviving American locomotives</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Ohio 4-6-2 #5300 "President Washington" built in 1927.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore and Ohio 2-8-2 #4500, USRA Light Mikado and the world&#39;s first USRA locomotive, built in 1918.</p><br>
<p>Chesapeake and Ohio 4-6-0 #377 built in 1902.</p><br>
<p>Chesapeake and Ohio 4-6-4 #490: The last surviving C&O "Streamlined" Hudson built in 1926 (Streamlined 1946).</p><br>
<p>Chesapeake and Ohio 2-8-4 #2705 built in 1943.</p><br>
<p>Chesapeake and Ohio 2-6-6-6 #1604: One of two surviving "Allegheny"-class locomotives built in 1941.</p><br>
<p>American Freedom Train 4-8-4 #1 (Reading #2101) built in 1945. One of three steam engines used on American Freedom Train of 1975–1976. Used on Chessie System Steam Specials in 1977–1978.</p><br>
<p>Greenbrier, Cheat and Elk River Shay #1 built in 1905.</p><br>
<p>Central Railroad of New Jersey 4-4-2 #592 built in 1901, one of five surviving Camelback type locomotives.</p><br>
<p>Potomac Electric Company (PEPCO) Fireless 0-4-0 #43</p><br>
<p>Pere Marquette SW1 #11 built in 1942. Operational.</p><br>
<p>Central Railroad of New Jersey #1000: first commercially successful diesel built in 1925.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio EA #51: first streamlined diesel built in 1937. Recently completed cosmetic restoration.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio RDC #1961 built in 1956. Operational.</p><br>
<p>Western Maryland BL2 #81 built in 1948 and Slug #138T built in 1941.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio GP30 #6944 built in 1962. Operational.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio GP40 #3684 built in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio GP9 #6607. built in 1956. Operational.</p><br>
<p>Western Maryland RS3 #195 built in 1953</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Annapolis 70 tonner #50 built in 1950</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio (Octoraro) S1 #3</p><br>
<p>Canton Railroad Baldwin VO-1000 #32 built in 1944</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio GP7 #6405 built in 1953. Operational.</p><br>
<p>Chessie System GP38 #3802 built in 1967. Chosen by Trains Magazine as "All American Diesel". Operational.</p><br>
<p>Baltimore & Ohio #10 (electric)</p><br>
<p>Pennsylvania Railroad #4876: GG1 electric, not currently on display in the museum itself. This locomotive crashed into Washington D.C.&#39;s Union Station in 1953 in the 1953 Federal Express train wreck.</p><br>
<p>MARC F7A APCU #7100: built in 1951, rebuilt in 1981. Used as a cab car and for supplying HEP.</p><br>
<p>Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad ("Ma & Pa") inspection car and Railway post office car</p><br>
<p>Forty and Eights "Merci" boxcar. One of 49 French boxcars gifted to the US in 1949.</p><br>
<p>B&O Royal Blue Line 1890s-era coach</p><br>
<p>Chessie System GP15T 1507. Built in 1982 and was just recently acquired. To be restored.</p><br>
<p>Conrail SW7 8905. Built in 1950.</p><br>
<p>Hungry Mother State Park is a state park in southwestern Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Much of the land for Hungry Mother State Park was donated by local landowners to develop a new state park in Smyth County on Hungry Mother Creek. The park is one of the six original CCC parks that opened in June 1936. The park was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Origins of name</h2><br>
<p>It has frequently been noted on lists of unusual place names. A legend states that when the Native Americans destroyed several settlements on the New River south of the park, Molly Marley and her small child were among the survivors taken to the raiders’ base north of the park. They eventually escaped, wandering through the wilderness eating berries. Molly finally collapsed, and her child wandered down a creek. Upon finding help, the only words the child could utter were "Hungry Mother." When the search party arrived at the foot of the mountain where Molly had collapsed, they found the childs mother dead. Today, that mountain is Mollys Knob (3,270 feet), and the stream is Hungry Mother Creek.</p><br>
<p>The Regency Bridge, locally known as the "Swinging Bridge," is a one-lane suspension bridge over the Colorado River in Texas. It is located at the intersection of Mills County Road 433 and San Saba County Road 137, both gravel roads, near a small community called Regency. The bridge spans the Colorado River between Mills and San Saba counties.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The main span is 343 ft long, but counting the approach spans, engineers list the bridge’s overall length at 403 ft. The wooden deck of the bridge is 16 ft wide. It was built in 1939, with most of the work being done by hand. An earlier bridge constructed in 1903 collapsed under the weight of a herd of cattle, and a later bridge built in 1936 washed away in a flood. The Regency Bridge was restored by James Harris in 1997, with then-Governor Bush attending the re-dedication service. This was a major event for the community of around 25 people.</p><br>
<p>Local teenagers accidentally set the wood surface on fire on December 29, 2003, burning a hole in some planks and causing $20,000 in damage. The bridge was repaired and reopened to traffic in early 2005. After closing in late 2014, the bridge is once again open to traffic. After a closure in Sept 2020 due to structural damage, the bridge was re-opened to traffic in May 2021.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, the Regency Bridge became the last suspension bridge in Texas open to automobile traffic.</p><br>
<h2>Commemoration</h2><br>
<p>A nearby historical marker, located on the southeast side of the intersection of FM 574 and Mills County Road 433 (which is just east of the intersection of FM 45 and FM 574) reads:</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The bridge is included in the opening credits for Texas Country Reporter.</p><br>
<p>In 2017 Regency Bridge was featured on an episode of The Daytripper with Chet Garner as part of the San Saba episode.</p><br>
<p>In 2005, Alton and Sue Watson founded the There&#39;s Something In The Water Songwriter Festival featuring musicians and songwriters from Texas, Oklahoma, and other regions. The annual festival was held for 12 years on the third weekend in April at an old campground located on the Mills County side of the river.</p><br>
<p>World Without Waves was filmed in the area and featured the Regency bridge in several scenes.</p><br>
<p>The Irma Hotel is a landmark in Cody, Wyoming. It was built by William F. "Buffalo Bill" Cody, the city&#39;s co-founder and namesake who named it after his daughter Irma Cody. A focal point is a famous back bar made of cherry that was a gift given by Queen Victoria to Buffalo Bill.</p><br>
<p>The Irma opened with a party on November 18, 1902, to which Cody invited the press and dignitaries from as far away as Boston. The hotel quickly became the social center of Cody. In the meantime, Buffalo Bill was under pressure from creditors and was forced to sign over the hotel to his wife Louisa in 1913, who was at that time on bad terms with him. After Codys death in 1917 the hotel was foreclosed upon and sold to Barney Link. Before the end of the year Links estate sold the property back to Louisa, who kept it until she died in 1925. The new owners, Henry and Pearl Newell, gradually expanded the hotel, building an annex around 1930 on the west side to accommodate automobile-borne visitors. After her husbands death in 1940, Pearl Newell operated the hotel until her own death in 1965. She left the hotels extensive collection of Buffalo Bill memorabilia to the Buffalo Bill Historical Center, and stipulated that proceeds from the estate be used as an endowment for the museum.</p><br>
<p>The Irma Hotel is still open for business as both a hotel and restaurant. It is included on the National Register of Historic Places, listed in 1973.</p><br>
<p>Oak Hill is a mansion and plantation located in Aldie, Virginia that was for 22 years a home of Founding Father James Monroe, the fifth USA President. It is located approximately 9 mi south of Leesburg on USA Route 15, in an unincorporated area of Loudoun County, Virginia. Its entrance is 10,300 ft north of Gilberts Corner, the intersection of 15 with USA Route 50. It is a National Historic Landmark, but privately owned and not open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The main mansion of the property was constructed in 1822 for James Monroe, who subsequently split time between this estate and another home at Monroe Hill on the grounds of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia after his term as the nations fifth president. Oak Hill was Monroes only residence for three years, from 1827 to 1830, and it was one of his residences during 22 years. The mansion was built in 1820, during Monroes presidency. Before that, Monroes residence at the estate was the clapboard building known in recent years as the Monroe Cottage.</p><br>
<p>The architecture is distinctive for "its unusual pentastyle portico". It is suggested that Thomas Jefferson, his close friend, may well have drawn plans for Oak Hill; the construction was supervised by James Hoban, designer and builder of the White House. The estate is a designated USA National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Purchase</h2><br>
<p>Monroe and his uncle Joseph Jones jointly purchased 4,400 acres (18 km) of land in Loudoun County in 1794. When Jones died without direct heirs in 1805, Monroe gained sole possession of the property. However, Monroe continued to live primarily at Highland, his residence in Albemarle County&mdash;until 1826, when he was forced to sell that property to pay debts he had incurred while serving as president.</p><br>
<h2>Attempted sale</h2><br>
<p>Monroe had put Oak Hill on the market in 1809, and placed an advertisement in The Washingtonian on December 23 of that year:</p><br>
<p>He also attempted to sell the land in 1825, but failed to receive an acceptable bid both times.</p><br>
<h2>Retirement</h2><br>
<p>In 1822, Monroe began construction on the main house, a two-story brick mansion in the Federal style. He hired James Hoban, the designer of the White House, to serve as architect. Monroe&#39;s longtime friend and political mentor Thomas Jefferson offered many design suggestions.</p><br>
<p>Monroe and his wife, Elizabeth Kortright Monroe, retired to Oak Hill after he finished his second term as president in 1825. In August 1825, the Marquis de Lafayette and President John Quincy Adams were guests of the Monroes there. Elizabeth Monroe died at Oak Hill on September 23, 1830. After her death, Monroe moved to New York City to live with his younger daughter and remained there until his own death on July 4, 1831.</p><br>
<p>After Monroes death, the property passed out of the Monroe family. John W. Fairfax, later a lieutenant colonel in the Confederate States Army, bought Oak Hill in 1852. His wife remained there while Fairfax was away fighting in the American Civil War; it was visited by General George G. Meade of the Union Army on the invitation of Mrs. Fairfax about a week prior to the Battle of Gettysburg. The property passed out of the hands of John Fairfax after the war, but was later repurchased by his eldest son, Henry, a civil engineer and state senator. The estate remained in the Fairfax family until after Henry Fairfaxs death in 1916. The mansion was enlarged by the addition of two wings in 1922 while owned by Frank C. Littleton and his wife, but the central facade looks much as it did during Monroes lifetime. The property remains in private hands today and is not open to the public. It became the residence of Tom and Gayle DeLashmutt and their family following the death of the previous owner, Eugene Reed Prendergast, Mr. DeLashmutts mother, in 1993.</p><br>
<p>Two USA Navy ships have been named USS Oak Hill after the estate.</p><br>
<h2>Potential museum</h2><br>
<p>In November 2023, the owners of Oak Hill sent a letter to Charles F. Sams III, Director of the National Park Service, requesting the agency to "explore the suitability of designating Oak Hill, the former home of President James Monroe located in Loudoun County, Virginia, as a unit of the National Park System." If successful, the goal would be to transform the house into a museum by the United States Semiquincentennial in 2026.</p><br>
<p>The Pennsylvania Railroads class H8, H9s and H10s steam locomotives were of the 2-8-0 "Consolidation" type, the last three classes of such built by the railroad. The three classes differed only in cylinder diameter and thus tractive effort, each subsequent class increasing that measurement by an inch. The first H8 was built in 1907 and the last H10 in 1916; within a few years they were replaced on heavy freight assignments by 2-8-2s and 2-10-0. They became the railroads standard light freight locomotive, replacing all other class H 2-8-0s, and a number remained in service until the end of PRR steam locomotive operation in 1957. 968 class H8 of various subclasses were constructed, along with 274 class H9s and 273 class H10s. A number of H8 locomotives were rebuilt to H9s specification.</p><br>
<p>Class H10s was built primarily for PRR Lines West, and featured a typical Lines West tender with sloping side coal boards at the top, to enable a bigger load of coal to be carried.</p><br>
<p>Some locomotives of this type were leased to the PRR-owned Long Island Rail Road, becoming the primary freight-hauling type on that system.</p><br>
<h2>Survivors</h2><br>
<p>7688, an H10s built in 1915 by the Lima Locomotive Works, has been preserved by the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania. It joins two earlier examples of the H class at the museum. #7688 was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 as Consolidation Freight Locomotive No. 7688.</p><br>
<p>Acoma Pueblo  is a Native American pueblo approximately 60 mi west of Albuquerque, New Mexico, in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Four communities make up the village of Acoma Pueblo: Sky City (Old Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys. These communities are located near the expansive Albuquerque metropolitan area, which includes several large cities and towns, including neighboring Laguna Pueblo. The Acoma Pueblo tribe is a federally recognized tribal entity, whose historic land of Acoma Pueblo totaled roughly 5,000,000 acres. Today, much of the Acoma community is primarily within the Acoma Indian Reservation. Acoma Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<p>According to the 2010 United States Census, 4,989 people identified as Acoma. The Acoma have continuously occupied the area for over 2,000 years, making this one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States (along with Taos and Hopi pueblos). Acoma tribal traditions estimate that they have lived in the village for more than two thousand years.</p><br>
<h2>Names</h2><br>
<p>The English name Acoma was borrowed from Spanish Ácoma (1583) or Acóma (1598). The Spanish name was borrowed from the Acoma word ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é meaning person from Acoma Pueblo. ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é itself is derived from ʔáák’u (singular; plural: ʔaak’u̓u̓m̓e̓e̓ʈʂʰa). The name does not have any meaning in the modern Acoma language. Some tribal authorities connect it to the similar word háák’u, preparedness, place of preparedness, and suggest that this might be the origin of the name. The name does not mean sky city. Other tribal elders assert that it means place that always was, while outsiders say it means people of the white rock.</p><br>
<p>Acoma has been spelled in various other ways in historical documents, including ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus, Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo, Ako, and A’ku-me. The Spanish mission name was San Esteban de Acoma.</p><br>
<p>Pueblo is the Spanish word for village or small town and people. In general usage, it is applied both to the people and to the unique architecture of the southwestern native tribes.</p><br>
<p>The Acoma are called ʔáák’u ( in Western Keresan, Hakukya in Zuni, and Haak’oh in Navajo.</p><br>
<h2>Language</h2><br>
<p>The Acoma language is classified in the western division of the Keresan languages. In contemporary Acoma Pueblo culture, most people speak both Acoma and English, elders speak an endangered indigenous variant of New Mexican Spanish.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origins and prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Pueblo people are believed to have descended from the Ancestral Puebloans, Mogollon, and other ancient peoples. These influences are seen in the architecture, farming style, and artistry of the Acoma. In the 13th century, the Ancestral Puebloans abandoned their canyon homelands due to climate change and social upheaval. For more than two centuries, there were migrations in the area. The Acoma Pueblo emerged by the 13th century.</p><br>
<p>The Pueblo is situated on a 365 ft mesa, about 60 mi west of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of the Pueblo has sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years as they sought protection from the raids of the neighboring Navajo and Apache peoples.</p><br>
<h3>European contact</h3><br>
<p>The first mention of Acoma was in 1539. Estevanico, a slave and was the first person of African descent to explore North America, was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma and reported it to Marcos de Niza, who related the information to the viceroy of New Spain after the end of his expedition. Acoma was called the independent Kingdom of Hacus. He called the Acoma people encaconados, which meant that they had turquoise hanging from their ears and noses.</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant Hernando de Alvarado of conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronados expedition described the Pueblo (which they called Acuco) in 1540 as "a very strange place built upon solid rock" and "one of the strongest places we have seen." Upon visiting the Pueblo, the expedition "repented having gone up to the place." Further from Alvarados report:</p><br>
<p>It is believed Coronado&#39;s expedition were the first Europeans to encounter the Acoma (Estevan was a native Moroccan). Alvarado reported that first the Acoma refused entry even after persuasions, but after Alvarado showed threats of an attack, the Acoma guards welcomed the Spaniards peacefully, noting that they and their horses were tired. The encounter shows that the Acoma had clothing made of deerskin, buffalo hide, and woven cotton, as well as turquoise jewelry, domestic turkeys, bread, pine nuts, and maize. The village seemed to contain about 200 men.</p><br>
<p>Acoma was next visited by the Spanish 40 years later in 1581 by Fray Agustín Rodríguez and Francisco Sánchez Chamuscado, with 12 soldiers, 3 other friars, and 13 others, including Indian servants. The Acoma at this time were reported to be somewhat defensive and fearful. This response may have been due to the knowledge of the Spanish enslavement of other Indians to work in silver mines in the area. However, eventually the Rodríguez and Chamuscado party convinced them to trade goods for food. The Spaniard reports say the pueblo had about 500 houses of either three or four stories high.</p><br>
<p>In 1582, Acoma was visited again by Antonio de Espejo for three months. The Acoma were reported to be wearing mantas. Espejo also noted irrigation in Acomita, the farming village in the north valley near San Jose River, which was two leagues from the mesa. He saw evidence of intertribal trade with "mountain Querechos". Acoma oral history does not confirm this trade but only tells of common messengers to and from the mesa and Acomita, McCartys Village, and Seama.</p><br>
<p>Juan de Oñate intended to colonize New Mexico starting from 1595 (he formally held the area by April 1598). The Acoma warrior Zutacapan heard of this plan and warned the mesa and organized a defense. However, a pueblo elder, Chumpo, dissuaded war, partly to prevent deaths and partly based on Zutancalpos (Zutacapans son) mentioning of the widespread belief that the Spaniards were immortal. Thus, when Oñate visited on October 27, 1598, Acoma met him peacefully, with no resistance to Oñate&#39;s demand of surrender and obedience reported. Oñate demonstrated his military power by firing a gun salute. Zutacapan offered to meet Oñate formally in the religious kiva, which is traditionally used as the place to make sacred oaths and pledges. However, Oñate was scared of death and in suspicious ignorance of Acoma customs refused to enter via ladder from the roof into the dark kiva chambers. Purguapo was another Acoma man out of four chosen for Spaniard negotiations.</p><br>
<p>Soon after Oñates departure, Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá visited Acoma by himself with a dog and a horse and asked for other supplies. Villagrá refused to get off his horse and left to follow Oñates party. However, Zutacapan convinced him to return to receive supplies. In questioning by Zutacapan, Villagrá said that 103 armed men were two days away from Acoma. Zutacapan then told Villagrá to leave Acoma.</p><br>
<p>On December 1, 1598, Juan de Zaldívar, Oñates nephew, reached Acoma with 20–30 men and peacefully traded with them and had to wait some days for their order of ground corn. On December 4, Zaldívar went with 16 armored men to Acoma to find out about the corn. Zutacapan met them and directed them to the homes with the corn. Zaldívars people then divided into groups to collect the corn. The traditional oral Acoma narrative tells that a group attacked some Acoma women, leading Acoma warriors to retaliate. The Spanish documents do not report an attack on the women and say that the division of the men was a reaction to Zutacapans plan to kill Zaldívars party. The Acoma killed 12 of the Spaniards, including Zaldívar. Five men escaped, although one died from jumping over the citadel, leaving four to escape with the remaining camp.</p><br>
<p>On December 20, 1598, Oñate learned of Zaldívars death and, after receiving encouraging advice from the friars, planned an attack in revenge, as well to teach a lesson to other pueblos. Acomas requested help from other tribes to defend against the Spanish. Among the leaders were Gicombo, Popempol, Chumpo, Calpo, Buzcoico, Ezmicaio, and Bempol (a recruited Apache war leader). On January 21, 1599, Vicente de Zaldívar (Juan de Zaldívars brother) reached Acoma with 70 soldiers. The Acoma Massacre started the next day and lasted for three days. On January 23, men were able to climb the southern mesa unnoticed by Acoma guards and breach the pueblo. The Spanish dragged a cannon through the streets, toppling adobe walls and burning most of the village, killing 800 people (decimating 20% of the 4,000 population) and imprisoning approximately 500 others. Almost all of the remaining inhabitants were enslaved or left the town. The pueblo surrendered at noon on January 24. Zaldívar lost only one of his men. The Spanish amputated the right feet of men over 25 years old, and by some accounts one or more toes of such enslaved men&#39;s right feet, and forced them into slavery for 20 years. They also took males aged 12–25 and females over 12 away from their parents, putting most of them in slavery for 20 years. The enslaved Acoma were given to government officials and various missions. Two other Indian men visiting Acoma at the time had their right hands cut off and were sent back to their respective Pueblos as a warning of the consequences for resisting the Spanish. On the north side of the mesa, a row of houses still retains marks from the fire started by a cannon during this Acoma War. (Oñate was later exiled from New Mexico for mismanagement, false reporting, and cruelty by Philip III of Spain.)</p><br>
<p>Survivors of the Acoma Massacre rebuilt their community between 1599 and 1620. The town remained uninhabited for several months, out of fear of more attacks, until it began to be rebuilt in December 1599. Oñate forced the Acoma and other local Indians to pay taxes in crops, cotton, and labor. Spanish rule also brought Catholic missionaries into the area. The Spanish renamed the pueblos with the names of saints and started to construct churches in them. They introduced new crops to the Acoma, including peaches, peppers, and wheat. A 1620 royal decree created Spanish civil offices in each pueblo, including Acoma, with an appointed governor to take command. In 1680, the Pueblo Revolt took place, with Acoma participating.</p><br>
<p>The Acoma suffered high mortality from smallpox epidemics, as they had no immunity to such Eurasian infectious diseases. They also suffered raiding from the Apache, Comanche, and Ute. On occasion, the Acoma would side with the Spanish to fight against these nomadic tribes. Forced to formally adopt Catholicism, the Acoma proceeded to practice their traditional religion in secrecy, and combined elements of both in a syncretic blend. Intermarriage and interaction became common among the Acoma, other pueblos, and Hispanic villages. These communities would intermingle in a kind of creolization to form the culture of New Mexico.</p><br>
<h4>San Esteban Del Rey Mission</h4><br>
<p>Between 1629 and 1641 Father Juan Ramirez oversaw construction of the San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church. The Acoma were ordered to build the church, moving 20,000 ST of adobe, straw, sandstone, and mud to the mesa for the church walls. Ponderosa pine was brought in by community members from Mount Taylor, over 40 mi away. The 6,000 ft2 church has an altar flanked by 60 ft-high wood pillars. These are hand carved in red and white designs, representing Christian and Indigenous beliefs. The Acoma know their ancestors&#39; hands built this structure, and they consider it a cultural treasure.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, the mission church was designated a National Trust Historic Site, the only Native American site in that ranking as identified by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, a non-profit organization.</p><br>
<h3>19th and 20th century</h3><br>
<p>During the 19th century, the Acoma people, while trying to uphold traditional life, also adopted aspects of the once-rejected Spanish culture and religion. By the 1880s, railroads brought increased numbers of settlers and ended the pueblos&#39; isolation.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s, the All Indian Pueblo Council gathered for the first time in more than 300 years. Responding to congressional interest in appropriating Pueblo lands, the USA Congress passed the Pueblo Lands Act in 1924. Despite successes in retaining their land, the Acoma had difficulty in preserving their cultural traditions in the 20th century. Protestant missionaries established schools in the area, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs forced Acoma children into boarding schools. By 1922, most children from the community were in boarding schools, where they were forced to use English and practice Christianity. Several generations became cut off from their culture and language, with harsh effects on their families and societies.</p><br>
<h3>Present day</h3><br>
<p>About 300 two- and three-story adobe buildings stand on the mesa, with exterior ladders used to access the upper levels where residents live. Access to the mesa is by a road blasted into the rock face during the 1950s, navigable by car and bus. Footpaths down the mesa can still be used. Approximately 30 or so people live permanently on the mesa, with the population increasing on the weekends, as family members come to visit, and tourists, some 55,000 annually, visit for the day.</p><br>
<p>Acoma Pueblo has no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal. Reservation lands surround the mesa, totaling 600 square miles. Tribal members live both on the reservation and outside it. Contemporary Acoma culture remains relatively closed. According to the 2000 United States census, 4,989 people identify themselves as Acoma.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Governance and reservation</h3><br>
<p>Acoma government was maintained by two individuals: a cacique, or head of the Pueblo, and a war captain, who would serve until their deaths. Both individuals maintained strong religious connections to their work, representing the theocracy of Acoma governance. The Spanish imposed a group to oversee the Pueblo, but their power was not taken seriously by the Acoma. The Spanish group would work with external situations and comprised a governor, two lieutenant governors, and a council. The Acoma also participated in the All Indian Pueblo Council, which started in 1598 and arose again in the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>The Acoma control approximately 500,000 acres of their traditional land. Mesas, valleys, hills, and arroyos dot the landscape that averages about 7,000 ft in altitude, with about 10 in of rain each year. Since 1977, the Acoma have increased their domain through several land purchases. On the reservation, only tribal members may own land and almost all enrolled members live on the property. The cacique is still active in the community and is from the Antelope clan. The cacique appoints tribal council members, staff, and the governor.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Acoma Pueblo and the Pueblo of Santa Clara were victims of heavy flooding. New Mexico supplied more than $1 million to fund emergency preparedness and damage repair for victims, and governor Susana Martinez requested additional funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency.</p><br>
<h3>Warfare and weaponry</h3><br>
<p>Historically, engagements in warfare were common for Acoma, like other Pueblos. Weapons used included clubs, stones, spears, and darts. The Acoma later would serve as auxiliaries for forces under Spain and Mexico, fighting against raids and protecting merchants on the Santa Fe Trail. After the 19th century, raiding tribes were less of a threat and Acoma military culture began to decline. The war captain position eventually would change to a civil and religious function.</p><br>
<h3>Architecture</h3><br>
<p>Acoma Pueblo has three rows of three-story, apartment-style buildings, which face south on top of the mesa. The buildings are constructed from adobe brick, with beams across the roof that were covered with poles, brush, and then plaster. The roof for one level would serve as the floor for another. Each level is connected to others by ladders, serving as a unique defensive aid; the ladders are the only way to enter the buildings, as the traditional design has no windows or doors. The lower levels of the buildings were used for storage. Baking ovens are outside the buildings, with water being collected from two natural cisterns. Acoma also has seven rectangular kivas and a village plaza, which serves as the spiritual center for the village.</p><br>
<h3>Family life</h3><br>
<p>About 20 matrilineal clans were recognized by the Acoma. Traditional child rearing involved very little discipline. Couples were generally monogamous, and divorce was rare. A quick burial followed death, then four days and nights of vigil. Women wore cotton dresses and sandals or high moccasin boots. Men wore cotton kilts and leather sandals. Rabbit and deer skin was also used for clothing and robes.</p><br>
<p>Since the 1970s, Acoma Pueblo has retained control over education services, which have been keys in maintaining traditional and contemporary lifestyles. They share a high school with Laguna Pueblo. Alcoholism, drug use, and other health issues are prominent on the reservation and Indian Health Service hospitals and native healers cooperate to battle health problems. Alcohol is banned on the Pueblo. The community is served by the Acoma-Canoncito-Laguna (ACL) Hospital run by the Indian Health Services and located in Acoma. Today, 19 clans still remain active.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Traditional Acoma religion stresses harmony between life and nature. The Sun is a representative of the Creator deity. Mountains surrounding the community, the Sun above, and the Earth below help to balance and define the Acoma world. Traditional religious ceremonies may revolve around the weather, including seeking to ensure healthy rainfall. The Acoma also use kachinas in rituals. The Pueblos also had one or more kivas, which served as religious chambers. The leader of each Pueblo would serve as the community religious leader, or cacique. The cacique would observe the Sun and use it as a guide for scheduling ceremonies, some which were kept secret.</p><br>
<p>Many Acoma are Catholic, but blend aspects of Catholicism and their traditional religion. Many old rituals are still performed. In September, the Acoma honor their patron saint, Saint Stephen. For feast day, the mesa is opened to the public for the celebration. More than 2,000 pilgrims attend the San Esteban Festival. The celebration begins at San Esteban Del Rey Mission, and a carved pine effigy of Saint Stephen is removed from the altar and carried into the main plaza with people chanting, shooting rifles, and ringing steeple bells. The procession then proceeds past the cemetery, down narrow streets, and to the plaza. Upon arriving at the plaza, the effigy is placed in a shrine lined with woven blankets and guarded by two Acoma men. A celebration follows with dancing and feasting. During the festival, vendors sell goods, such as traditional pottery and cuisine.</p><br>
<h3>Subsistence</h3><br>
<p>Before contact with the Spanish, Acoma people primarily ate corn, beans, and squash. Mut-tze-nee was a popular thin corn bread. They also raised turkeys, tobacco, and sunflowers. The Acoma hunted antelope, deer, and rabbits. Wild seeds, berries, nuts, and other foods were gathered. After 1700, new foods were noted in the historical record. Staples included blue corn drink, pudding, corn mush, corn balls, wheat cake, peach-bark drink, paper bread, flour bread, wild berries, and prickly pear fruit. After contact with the Spanish, goats, horses, sheep and donkeys were raised.</p><br>
<p>In contemporary Acoma, other foods are also popular, such as apple pastries, corn tamales, green-chili stew with lamb, fresh corn, and wheat pudding with brown sugar.</p><br>
<p>Irrigation techniques such as dams and terraces were used for agriculture. Farming tools were made of wood and stone. Harvested corn would be ground with hands and mortar.</p><br>
<h3>Ethnobotany</h3><br>
<p>A list of Acoma Pueblo ethnobotany shows 68 documented plant uses.</p><br>
<p>In 1932, George R. Swank published a Masters thesis titled "The Ethnobotany of the Acoma and Laguna Indians," containing short sections on the Puebloans history, culture and mythology as well as an extensive treatment of plant uses and names.</p><br>
<h3>Economy</h3><br>
<p>Historical Acoma economic practices are described as socialistic or communal. Labor was shared and produce was distributed equally. Trading networks were extensive, spreading thousands of miles throughout the region. During fixed times in the summer and fall, trading fairs were held. The largest fair was held in Taos by the Comanche. Nomadic traders would exchange slaves, buckskins, buffalo hide, jerky, and horses. Pueblo people would trade for copper and shell ornaments, macaw feathers, and turquoise. Since 1821, the Acoma traded via the Santa Fe Trail. The arrival of railroads in the 1880s made the Acoma dependent on American-made goods, which suppressed traditional arts such as weaving and pottery.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Acoma produce a variety of goods. They grow alfalfa, oats, wheat, chilies, corn, melon, squash, vegetables, and fruit, and they raise cattle. They have natural reserves of gas, geothermal, and coal resources. Uranium mines in the area provided work for the Acoma until their closings in the 1980s. After that, the tribe provided most employment. However, high unemployment rates trouble the Pueblo. The uranium mines left radiation pollution, causing the tribal fishing lake to be drained and some health problems within the community.</p><br>
<h4>Tourism</h4><br>
<p>Tourism is a major source of income for the tribe. In 2008, Pueblo Acoma opened the Sky City Cultural Center and Haak&#39;u Museum at the base of the mesa, replacing the original, which was destroyed by fire in 2000. The center and museum seek to sustain and preserve Acoma culture. Films about Acoma history are shown and a café serves traditional foods. The architecture was inspired by pueblo design and indigenous architectural traditions, with wide doorways in the middle, which in traditional homes make the bringing of supplies easier. The windowpanes contain flecks of mica, a mineral which is used to create mesa windows. The complex is also fire resistant, unlike traditional pueblos, and is painted in light pinks and purples to match the landscape surrounding it. Traditional Acoma artwork is exhibited and demonstrated at the center, including ceramic chimneys crafted on the rooftop. Arts and crafts also bring income.</p><br>
<p>Acoma Pueblo is open to the public by guided tour from March until October, though June and July have periods of closure for cultural activities. Photography of the Pueblo and surrounding land is restricted. Tours and camera permits are purchased at the Sky City Cultural Center. While photography is allowed with permit, video recordings, drawings, and sketching are prohibited. All photography is forbidden within the church.</p><br>
<p>The Acoma Pueblo also has a casino and hotel - the Sky City Casino Hotel. The casino and hotel are alcohol-free and are maintained by the Acoma Business Enterprise, which oversees most Acoma businesses.</p><br>
<h3>Arts</h3><br>
<p>At Acoma, pottery remains one of the most notable artforms. Men create weavings and silver jewelry, as well.</p><br>
<h4>Pottery</h4><br>
<p>Acoma pottery dates back more than 1,000 years. Dense local clay, dug up at a nearby site, is essential to Acoma pottery. The clay is dried and strengthened by the addition of pulverized pottery shards. The pieces then are shaped, painted, and fired. Geometric patterns, thunderbirds, and rainbows are traditional designs, which are applied with the spike of a yucca. A potter lightly strikes the side of the pot upon completion and holds it to his or her ear; if the pot does not ring, it will crack during firing. If this is found, the piece is destroyed and ground into shards for future use.</p><br>
<h2>Communities</h2><br>
<p>Acomita</p><br>
<p>Anzac</p><br>
<p>McCartys</p><br>
<p>Sky Line</p><br>
<p>Old Sky Line</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Loren Aragon, fashion designer</p><br>
<p>Marie Chino, traditional pottery artist</p><br>
<p>Vera Chino, traditional pottery artist</p><br>
<p>Lucy Lewis, traditional pottery artist</p><br>
<p>Georgene Louis, attorney and member of the New Mexico House of Representatives</p><br>
<p>Simon J. Ortiz, poet, author, and educator</p><br>
<p>Anton Docher, "The Padre of Isleta", French priest</p><br>
<p>Rachel Concho, traditional pottery artist known for seed pots</p><br>
<p>The Northwest Railway Museum  is a railroad museum in Snoqualmie, King County, Washington. It incorporates a heritage railway, historic depot, exhibit hall, library, and collection care center, and serves more than 130,000 visitors per year.</p><br>
<p>The heritage railway incorporates five miles of the line constructed in 1889 by the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway (SLS&E), which was part of Seattle&#39;s response to the Northern Pacific selecting Tacoma as their western terminus. The SLS&E was later purchased by the Northern Pacific.</p><br>
<h2>Snoqualmie depot</h2><br>
<p>The Snoqualmie depot was built in 1890 by the SLS&E. The depot is an example of a building that was in nearly every community across the nation. Good architecture was good advertising and enhanced company pride. The station once served as the terminal for this early recreation area. An atypical design was the result of the need for a rural combined freight-passenger depot, however, one with lavish decorations to reflect the holiday spirit of vacationers from Seattle. Visitors came to enjoy hunting and fishing, as well as excursions to Snoqualmie Falls.</p><br>
<p>The station is a large frame building about 125 by with a generous 9 ft eaves. A bay window features the telegrapher&#39;s office. The semicircular north end stands out in this design. The eaves are supported by wooden pillars and diagonal braces and scroll work decorates the intersection of the braces with the eaves and the pillars.</p><br>
<p>The current structure was modified from the original, in which the bay window continued up through the roof and formed an octagonal tower a full story in height. A two sash window with a semicircular upper sash appeared on each face of the tower and a prominent cornice separated the tower body from the steeply pitched roof. The roof was decorated with fancy butt shingles and capped with a finial. A large swept dormer was placed in the southern part of the main structure above the freight section, Cast iron cresting and fancy butt shingles decorated the roof of both the main body and the transverse dormer. The freight dock, was wider originally and ran the length of the entire rear third of the station, is now a small porch in front of a single sliding freight door.</p><br>
<p>The Snoqualmie depot is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, ID #74001963.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The Northwest Railway Museum was founded in 1957 as the Puget Sound Railway Historical Association. As part of a general reorganization, the museum took its current name in September 1999. The mission of the organization is to develop and operate an outstanding railway museum where the public can see and understand the role of railroads in the development of the Pacific Northwest, and experience the excitement of a working railroad.</p><br>
<p>The museum&#39;s collection includes a variety of railway cars and locomotives that document the growth of the railway network in Washington from the 1880s through the 1990s. One of the items included is the Messenger of Peace Chapel Car which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It also includes a 3,000-volume library and archives that focus on the history of railroads in the Northwest and on technical and other engineering aspects of railroading.</p><br>
<h2>Collection</h2><br>
<h3>Steam locomotives</h3><br>
<h3>Diesel locomotives</h3><br>
<h3>Gasoline-Mechanical locomotives</h3><br>
<h3>Passenger cars</h3><br>
<p>The Northwest Railway Museum maintains 18 passenger cars of various time periods, manufactured between 1881 and 1998. Most of these cars were built by either Barney and Smith, the St. Louis Car Company, or Pullman. Several of the passenger cars operate with one of the museum&#39;s 2 RS4-TCs and/or Northern Pacific 924 for excursion service on the Snoqualmie Valley Railroad.</p><br>
<h3>Freight, industrial, and maintenance of way equipment</h3><br>
<p>The museum owns a total of 39 other railway equipment artifacts in various forms, previously operating for a wide variety of railroads. While not included as historic equipment, there is also the various pieces of equipment used to maintain the railway, some of which dates as far back as the 1950s.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage railroad</h2><br>
<p>The Northwest Railway Museum operates a heritage railroad called the Snoqualmie Valley Railroad. This 5 mi route allows museum visitors to experience a train excursion aboard antique railroad coaches dating to 1915 and earlier. Trains are scheduled either Saturday, or Saturday and Sunday depending on the time of year, with chartered or special trains on various days. The railroad typically carries over 60,000 passengers per year. The railroad hosts several special events, such as the Day Out with Thomas event every July. Other events include Christmas & Halloween trains, wine tasting specials, and chartered excursions such as educational trains and corporate events.</p><br>
<h2>Railway History Center</h2><br>
<p>In August 2006 the Museum dedicated the new Conservation and Restoration Center (CRC), phase one of the Railway History Center. The CRC is a place to perform repairs and restoration work on the museum&#39;s different pieces of equipment, including locomotives, passenger cars, and freight cars. It features 8,200 ft&sup2, two full-length inspection pits, and is used to perform many functions once conducted in railroad backshops. A full assortment of carpentry and machining equipment allows the museum to produce parts that have been out of production since the 1960s.</p><br>
<p>The Graffiti House, located at 19484 Brandy Road in the eastern end of the town of Brandy Station, Virginia, is believed by the Brandy Station Foundation to have been built in 1858. It is one of few dwellings in the village built before the American Civil War to survive intact to this day. The house is notable because of the Civil War era graffiti on many of the walls. The graffiti found includes names, drawings, names of units, and inscriptions left by soldiers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Because of its location on the Orange & Alexandria Railroad and the Carolina Road, the house, which was less than 0.25 mi from the train depot, is thought by the Foundation to have been a commercial building as well as a dwelling. The Foundation reports that some graffiti has been removed or destroyed but considerable graffiti still remain. New graffiti were discovered as recently as December 2010.</p><br>
<p>The house was owned by James Barbour (brother of the railroads president John S. Barbour Jr.) during the Civil War but the Barbour familys main residence was on a ridge about 1.5 mi to the south (and during the war was used by Confederate General J.E.B. Stuart). Barbour served on the staff of Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell until January 1863.</p><br>
<p>Because of its strategic location near the railroad, this house was used extensively by both the Union Army and Confederate States Army throughout the Civil War. Confederates used it as a field hospital during the Battle of Brandy Station and at other times when battles occurred in the area. It was probably used as a field hospital for wounded soldiers evacuated by train after the Battle of First Bull Run or First Manassas. The earliest known graffiti in the house date to the Second Manassas Campaign in August 1862, as the armies transited Culpeper County.</p><br>
<p>At the outset of the Gettysburg Campaign, the Battle of Brandy Station, the largest cavalry battle ever to take place in North America occurred on June 9, 1863, in the fields adjacent to the Graffiti House and extended to the heights on which the main house stood. After the fighting ended, the lower house was used as a Confederate field hospital. Later that year, Federal troops occupied the building when the Army of the Potomac camped in Culpeper County during the winter of 1863–64. The house was headquarters to Brigadier General Henry Prince, a division commander in the Third Corps of the Army of the Potomac during the Union Army pursuit of the Army of Northern Virginia after its retreat from the Battle of Gettysburg, sometimes called the Rapidan campaign but this name could be confused with the beginning of the Overland Campaign, and during the Mine Run Campaign later in 1863.</p><br>
<p>The plaster walls on the houses second floor are covered with an outstanding and unique collection of charcoal and pencil graffiti left by soldiers from both armies. In addition to their autographs, the soldiers drew elaborate pictures of men and women, and wrote inscriptions commemorating their units and their battles. After the war, new paint and wallpaper led to their being forgotten. The graffiti were rediscovered during a renovation in 1993. The Brandy Station Foundation purchased the house in 2002, and its website lists the days it is open for viewing. The house includes a small museum and serves as a headquarters for the Brandy Station Foundation and the Foundations visitor center for the Brandy Station battlefield.</p><br>
<h2>Graffiti that have been identified</h2><br>
<p>Below is listed the names and units of those who have been identified in the Graffiti House:</p><br>
<p>Sergeant Allen Bowman, Co. E, 12th Virginia Cavalry</p><br>
<p>Private Michael Bowman, Co. H 7th Virginia Cavalry</p><br>
<p>Private Hamilton Boyd, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private George Washington Butt, Norfolk Light Artillery (Huger&#39;s Battery)</p><br>
<p>Private James A. J. Cooper, Co. A, 35th Battalion Virginia Cavalry (Whites Comanches)</p><br>
<p>Captain Edwin Dillingham, 10th Vermont Infantry</p><br>
<p>Private C. Benton Evans, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private William Evans, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Colonel John Egbert Farnum, Commander, 70th New York Infantry</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant Lyman C. Gale, Co. K, 10th Vermont Infantry</p><br>
<p>Corporal Fayette Gibson, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Thomas Herb Greenwell, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Uriah Haller, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private William J. Haney, 24th Battalion Virginia Partisan Rangers</p><br>
<p>Private Henry Hal Hopkins, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private William Hopkins, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Bob Lewis, Norfolk Light Artillery (Huger&#39;s Battery)</p><br>
<p>Private George McCabe Jr., Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant William J. Marshall, Co. E, 12th Virginia Cavalry</p><br>
<p>Lieutenant Joseph Moore, Norfolk Light Artillery (Huger&#39;s Battery)</p><br>
<p>Private Edward Moreland, Norfolk Light Artillery (Huger&#39;s Battery)</p><br>
<p>Private A Muth, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private George W. Orrison, Co. C, 35th Battalion Virginia Cavalry (Whites Comanches)</p><br>
<p>Private David Owens, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Robert Peed, Norfolk Light Artillery (Huger&#39;s Battery)</p><br>
<p>Private David Owens, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Dan Quinlan, Massachusetts Light Battery C</p><br>
<p>Private Elijah Russell, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart, Commander, Army of Northern Virginia Cavalry</p><br>
<p>Sergeant Henry Thomas, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Harry Wagner, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Harry Wickes, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Private Thomas Frank Yates, Breathed&#39;s Battery, Stuart Horse Artillery</p><br>
<p>Below is listed the names of those who have not been identified in the Graffiti House:</p><br>
<p>Lewis Metta</p><br>
<p>Frank E. Kelly</p><br>
<p>M Rown</p><br>
<p>T.E. Kelly</p><br>
<p>Emanuel</p><br>
<p>A.L. Brynn</p><br>
